U.S purchased million of H1N1 swine flu vaccine.

The government of U.S. has purchased 195 million doses of H1N1 swine flu vaccine for this autumn vaccination campaign, a U.S. federal official said on Thursday. The Health and Human Services Department of U.S. has purchased 120 million doses of adjuvant.

Five companies are producing H1N1 vaccine for the U.S. they are AstraZeneca’s MedImmune unit, Australia's CSL Ltd, GlaxoSmithKline Plc, Novartis AG and Sanofi-Aventis SA.

In October, World Health Organization and U.S. health officials plan to start vaccinating people against H1N1.Before giving this vaccine to the people this should be approved by the FDA; FDA also likes to speed this process as soon as possible so that it reaches to the people earlier.

People below the age of 25 get sick most frequently, even though most of the 263 deaths which were recorded in the U.S. are between 25 and 49. People under the age of 65 have low risk, because they are exposed to viruses in the same influenza family for years.

Learn what to do in an e-mergency

If you suspect malware is lurking on your computer, stop shopping, banking, and other online activities that involve user names, passwords, or other sensitive information. Malware could be sending your personal information to identity thieves.

Confirm that your security software is up-to-date, then use it to scan your computer. Delete everything the program identifies as a problem. You may have to restart your computer for the changes to take effect.

If the problem persists after you exhaust your ability to diagnose and treat it, you might want to call for professional help. If your computer is covered by a warranty that offers free tech support, contact the manufacturer. Before you call, write down the model and serial number of your computer, the name of any software you've installed, and a short description of the problem. Your notes will help you give an accurate description to the technician.

If you need professional help, if your machine isn't covered by a warranty, or if your security software isn't doing the job properly, you may need to pay for technical support. Many companies — including some affiliated with retail stores — offer tech support via the phone, online, at their store, or in your home. Telephone or online help generally are the least expensive ways to access support services — especially if there's a toll-free helpline — but you may have to do some of the work yourself. Taking your computer to a store usually is less expensive than hiring a technician or repair person to come into your home.

Once your computer is back up and running, think about how malware could have been downloaded to your machine, and what you could do to avoid it in the future.

Also, talk about safe computing with anyone else who uses the computer. Tell them that some online activity can put a computer at risk, and share the seven practices for safer computing.

Burglar alarms

Many burglars will avoid breaking into a property with an alarm.

There are many alarm systems on the market. These range from fairly cheap alarms, which you can fit yourself, to more sophisticated systems, costing hundreds of pounds, which need to be installed by professionals. Low-cost alarms are less reliable and can, through false alarms, be a nuisance to both you and your neighbours.

Consider whether you need an audible-only alarm (which sets off a siren or bell) or a monitored alarm (connected to a central 'listening' service). Due to the huge number of false alarms, police will only respond to audible alarms if there is confirmation of suspicious activity - such as a neighbour saying they saw someone or heard glass being broken.

For monitored systems, the monitoring company will check whether any alarm was false - for example, set off by the homeowners entering the wrong access code - and call out the police if necessary. Monitored systems are particularly important for isolated properties.

If you are thinking about installing a burglar alarm, you should do the following.

• Ask the crime prevention officer at your local police station for advice before you buy an alarm.

• Get at least three quotes and specialist advice from companies that supply alarms. Use companies registered with either the National Security Inspectorate or Security Systems and Alarm Inspection Board.

• Talk to your insurance company about the alarm companies they recommend before you decide which best suits your needs. The system should meet British Standard BS4737 or BS6799 (wire-free) or the new European Standard EN50131-1.

• Get professional help to install the alarm and to explain how to operate it correctly to make sure that it will work properly.

Remember, an alarm which is not fitted properly can create problems in itself. Don’t fit an alarm yourself unless you have the electrical knowledge and practical skills to do so, it could end up costing you more.

National Security of Japan

Armed Forces: Article 9 of Constitution precludes existence of offensive military forces. Self-Defense Forces numbered about 246,400 in 1992: Ground Self-Defense Force 156,000, Maritime Self-Defense Force 44,400, and Air Self-Defense Force 46,000. Reserves 48,400.

Military Units: Five armies, five maritime districts, and three air defense forces. Main bases in Hokkaido, eastern Honshu, central and western Honshu and Shikoku, and Kyushu.

Equipment: Ground Self-Defense Force: medium tanks, reconnaissance vehicles, armored personnel carriers, towed and self-propelled howitzers, mortars, single rocket and multiple rocket launchers, air defense guns, surface-to-surface missiles, antitank missiles, fixed-wing aircraft, attack helicopters, and transport helicopters. Maritime Self-Defense Force: submarines, guided missile destroyers, frigates with helicopters, frigates, patrol and coastal combatants, mine warfare ships, amphibious ships, auxiliaries, fixed-wing aircraft, and helicopters. Air SelfDefense Force: ground attack aircraft, fighters, reconnaissance aircraft, airborne early warning aircraft, transport aircraft, surface-to-air missiles, air-to-surface missiles, air-to-air missiles, and air-defense control and warning units.

Military Budget: Approximately US$34.3 billion in fiscal year 1992. Efforts made for political reasons to keep direct defense expenses at about 1 percent of GNP.

Foreign Military Treaty: Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security with United States (1960); can be revoked on one-year's notice by either party and is updated by minutes periodically.

Police Forces: Independent municipal and local police forces, all under supervision of National Police Agency in 1993. National Rural Police at prefectural level.

Care For Trees

Tree Care

Trees, like other living organisms, have certain basic needs to survive, function, and grow. Understanding what these basic needs are, and providing them to the greatest extent possible, will enable our trees to bestow their optimum benefits.

Soil

Some of the most important activities for a healthy tree are occurring in their roots, in the soil. Good soil has large and small air spaces where water and air can circulate so that roots can absorb water and minerals and exchange carbon dioxide for oxygen. Good soil is also alive with a myriad of organisms which enrich it and improve its structure. Mycorrhizal fungi enhance water and nutrient absorption by roots, earthworms loosen the soil, and other fungi and bacteria decompose organic matter. Maintaining good soil conditions is therefore one of the basic things we need to do for our trees.

Mulch

One of the best things we can do to improve soil conditions is to maintain a layer of organic mulch over the tree's root zone. Mulch protects against soil compaction, adds organic matter to the soil as it decomposes, slows evaporation of water from the soil, and moderates soil temperature. In addition to improving the soil, mulching reduces competition from turf grass and weeds, and protects against damage from mowers and weed whackers

Pest Control

At the other end of the tree, leaves are manufacturing carbohydrates from water and carbon dioxide using chlorophyll and solar energy. These carbohydrates are used in chemical reactions with other nutrients to carry on all of the other functions of the tree. Of course, there are generally animals, insects, and other organisms feasting on the leaves, but as long as they dine in moderation, there will be enough food for them and for the tree. Trees should be regularly monitored so that protective action can be taken before too much defoliation occurs. This action may simply be removing insects by hand or with a spray of water, or it may require some type of pesticide, preferably one that is harmless to non-target life forms. Pest resistant tree species or cultivars, correctly planted in the proper site, and well cared for, are far less likely to ever require such protective measures.

Trunk Protection

Between the roots and the leaves are the trunk and branches containing the tree's vascular system which transports water, dissolves minerals, carbohydrates, and all the other chemicals which are involved in the numerous processes that are carried on in a living tree. The most important thing to remember is that the thin layer of living tissue (phloem) that carries manufactured food from the leaves to the roots lies just inside the bark. Protecting this phloem layer is critical to survival and growth of the tree. The tree trunk must be protected from damage which penetrates the bark and interferes with the phloem layer. Besides affecting the vascular system, openings in the bark provide an entry for harmful insects and diseases. Young trees with thin bark are especially in need of protection.

Remembering and thinking about the basic functions of a tree allows us to provide the care necessary for a healthy, beautiful, and useful tree.

How to quit smoking

The best way to give up smoking is to join a stop-smoking program. NGOs and additional groups run this course for people who wish to quit smoking. These programs offer plenty of thoughts on how to quit smoking

If you are thinking to quit smoking, choose the right time for therapy. Don't try to quit smoking when you are under stress. Smokers have unusual experiences when they try to quit. Some experience drowsy or very anxious, faint, tense or bad-tempered; while others may pine for tobacco or sweets or have headaches. Normal exercise, sunrise walks, good sleep, a good diet and plenty of water can offer the course of therapy a boost.

One more tool of tobacco rehabilitation is Nicotine replacement therapy. Nicotine replacement therapy uses nicotine chewing gum, nicotine patches, inhalers, nasal sprays and pills. These products generate less nicotine than is present in cigarettes, plus they do not contain tar and other gases.

Counseling sessions with a specialist, drug therapies, yoga, meditation and social support are some of the good habits to follow during and after the course of therapy.

How bacteria Multiplies

Bacteria need warmth and moisture to grow – that’s why we need to keep certain foods nice and cold in the fridge. Bacteria reproduce by dividing themselves, so one bacterium becomes two, two become four, and so on.

In the right conditions, one bacterium could become several million in eight hours and thousands of million in twelve hours.

This means that if a food is contaminated with a small number of bacteria and you leave it out of the fridge overnight, it could be seriously contaminated by the next day. Then just one mouthful could make you ill. If you put food in the fridge it will stop bacteria from multiplying.

Since you can't see, taste or smell bacteria, the only way you can be sure that food is safe is to follow good food hygiene at all times.

Types of Photography Materials

Types of Materials

Historical photographs may be daguerreotypes, using copper sheets and mercury vapors, or albumen prints made on very thin papers with an emulsion derived from egg whites. Early photographs were also made with supports of glass and metal and collodion emulsions. In the late 1880s glass negatives were replaced by a clear plastic film made from cellulose nitrate. This was superseded in the 1930s by "safety film" on cellulose triacetate. Triacetate is still used as a film base today in conjunction with polyester film which was introduced in 1960.

Documenting a Photograph
The most important part of a photograph is not the image itself, but the information about the content. Failing memories can lose important stories of the who, what, when, where and how of the photographs. So the very first step in caring for a family or historical collection is recording information about the images. Sit down with the images and record the names of the persons in the image, the date taken and the location. Write it out on either a separate paper or lightly on the back outside edge of the photograph in pencil. Additional information about the occasion when the images was taken, relationship of the person in the photograph, their birth and death dates, who took the image and if there is an original negative will help document the image for later generations.

Organizing Photograph Collections
Photographs may be organized chronologically, by name or by subject. If organizing by name, be sure to list surname and then first name. Women are often only identified by their husband's name--it is better to provide her first name and maiden name if possible. An index to the names and location of originals is very helpful to family members and can be created easily with current computer programs. For the advanced there are cataloging programs in which information can be stored with thumbnails of images. Organizing by year allows one to chronicle the history of a family and location. This can be very helpful in visually documenting a family tree. Subject matter may be used for simplicity of locating images of birds, animals, and locations, if many images exist.

Dont think that one person has to do all the word of identifying, organizing and storing the photographs: make it a family event to get together regularly and reminisce about people, places and events. The work will be part of the fun and will become part of a family legacy.

Storing Photographs
Correct handling of photographs will aid in preserving them for as long as possible.

DOs

1. Wear lint-free cotton gloves when handling photographs.
2. Record information on photocopies of images or in pencil on the back near the edge of the photograph.
3. Archival-quality, acid-free storage materials should be used.
4. Prints and negatives should be individually stored in sleeves or acid-free envelopes.
5. Images should be stored flat in acid free boxes or vertically with spacers so they will not slump.

DONTs

1. Labels and identification stamps should never be applied directly to photographs. Adhesives fail after time and ink damages the photo.
2. Refrain from using ink or marking pens on either the front or back of photographs, as the ink can bleed into the image area.
3. Do not store photographs in attics or in the damp basement next to water sources or in storage areas holding cleaning supplies or recently painted rooms. Heat and humidity can cause more rapid deterioration of images. Air pollution from cleaners and car exhaust can rapidly damage images, especially color.
4. Do not use paper clips, rupper bands or tape on photographs. Paper clips rust and deform the image with pressure. Rubber bands deteriorate and stick to image and the adhesive on tape degrades and the transparent base yellows.
5. Avoid excess exposure to light, especially sunlight and flourescent. Color photographs will fade rapidly with prolonged exposure.

Photographs Divisions in Library of Congress

There are more than 725 daguerreotypes in the Prints & Photographs Division. The majority of the images are portraits, but the collection does include early architectural views, outdoor scenes, and copies of works of art.

385 of the daguerreotypes are credited to Mathew Brady's studio. Brady, who today is mainly remembered for the work produced by his studio during the Civil War, opened his first daguerreotype studio in New York City in 1844. The Library has the largest collection of Brady studio daguerreotypes in existence. Most of these were acquired in 1920 from the Army War College. Some of the images are copy daguerreotypes. Portrait sitters represented in the collection include political figures, such as President James K. Polk and Thomas Hart Benton; artists, including Thomas Cole, George Peter Alexander Healy, and Henry Inman; and journalists, Horace Greeley, Henry J. Raymond, and James Gordon Bennett. Many of the sitters are unidentified.

John Plumbe's architectural daguerreotypes of sites in the Washington-Baltimore area are the earliest existing photographic views of buildings and monuments in the nation's capital and its neighboring city. Dating from 1846 or so, the six views include images of the White House, the Capitol, the Patent Office, the General Post Office, and a monument commemorating the Battle of North Point (Baltimore). The Library acquired these views in 1972.

The earliest known portraits of President and Mrs. Abraham Lincoln are daguerreotypes, presented to the Library in 1937 by their granddaughter, Mrs. Charles Isham. The quarter-plate portrait of Lincoln was most likely taken shortly after the thirty-seven year old was first elected to the U.S. House of Representatives. It has been attributed to photographer N.H. Shepherd, who ran a gallery in Springfield, Illinois, in 1846-1847. This attribution is based upon the recollections of a member of the Lincoln and Herndon law office.

In 1996 the Library acquired the Marian S. Carson Collection, an extensive collection of early Americana, which includes nearly 100 daguerreotypes. Most noteworthy is an 1839 daguerreotype self-portrait by Robert Cornelius, believed to be the earliest extant American photographic portrait. Other strengths of the Carson Collection include several street views of Philadelphia from the 1840s; numerous daguerreotypes documenting the McAllister family, including stereo daguerreotype portraits and images made by William Young McAllister, an amateur daguerreotypist; two occupational daguerreotypes of firemen; and a stunning full-length portrait of the artist William Sidney Mount by Mathew Brady.

Many daguerreotypes have come to the Library with the manuscript collections of prominent Americans. Such collections include the Clara Barton Collection, the Gilbert H. Grosvenor Collection of Alexander Graham Bell Family Photographs, the Feinberg/Whitman Collection, the Anson Conger Goodyear Collection of Lincoln images, the Blackwell Family Collection, and the Frances Benjamin Johnston Collection.

The American Colonization Society collection, a group of material related to African American emigration to Liberia, contains thirty daguerreotypes of Liberian government officials and other colonists. The sitters include Joseph Jenkins Roberts, the first president of Liberia; his wife, Jane Roberts; Stephen Allen Benson, Secretary of the Treasury under Roberts; and Edward W. Blyden, who became a prominent educator in Liberia. Five images have the name of the photographer, Augustus Washington, stamped on their brass mats. Washington was a black daguerreotypist who operated a studio in Hartford, Connecticut, until November 1853 when he moved to Liberia. An additional eleven images, housed in identical brass mats and preservers, were also most likely taken by Washington.

In 1999 the Library acquired the Anthony Bardoza Collection which includes more than 50 daguerreotypes, many by black photographers. The collection provides researchers with the opportunity to study the work of black daguerreotypists within the context of their contemporaries. The highlight of the collection is a group of portrait daguerreotypes by J.P. Ball, an African American who operated a studio in Cincinnati, Ohio. The collection also includes more than 25 daguerreotypes by Francis Grice, an obscure black daguerreotypist originally from Haiti, who settled in the U.S. in the 1850s.

Did You Know?

Safety of Drinking Water If Flooding Occurs

The Safety Measures

• Use bottled water that has not been exposed to flood waters if it is available.
• If you don't have bottled water, you should boil water to make it safe. Boiling water will kill most types of disease-causing organisms that may be present. If the water is cloudy, filter it through clean cloths or allow it to settle, and draw off the clear water for boiling. Boil the water for one minute, let it cool, and store it in clean containers with covers.
• If you can't boil water, you can disinfect it using household bleach. Bleach will kill some, but not all, types of disease-causing organisms that may be in the water. If the water is cloudy, filter it through clean cloths or allow it to settle, and draw off the clear water for disinfection. Add 1/8 teaspoon (or 8 drops) of regular, unscented, liquid household bleach for each gallon of water, stir it well and let it stand for 30 minutes before you use it. Store disinfected water in clean containers with covers.
• If you have a well that has been flooded, the water should be tested and disinfected after flood waters recede. If you suspect that your well may be contaminated, contact your local or State health department or agriculture extension agent for specific advice.

How To Choose Best Hardware

Types of Rubber Stamps

Official rubber stamps

The signatures on official documents are verified using a stamp in Europe. Care must be taken to not to lose these stamps, since possessing the stamp would allow forgery of official documents.Company rubber stamps are also called company chop in most Asian countries. "Chop" in this context is actually derived from the Malay word cap.Passport stamps are a common use of very important official rubber stamps.

Business rubber stamps

Rubber stamps for business are custom-made, showing an address, a corporate logo or something similar, or they are bought ready-made. They often have movable parts that allow the user to adjust the date or the wording of the stamp. They are still often used to date incoming mail, memos and similar items, as well as to denote special handling of the document. There are about 10-15 large to medium sized businesses in the UK that are producing stamps of all kinds all day every day. Many smaller businesses exist producing just a few daily.

Business stamps are generally available from stationers or direct from the manufacturer. Popular stamps include address stamps and one line cheque stamps. Some artists have been using such stamps to decorate pieces of art for special effects or in an ironic way.

Automated Rubber Stamps

Document marking can be done from within the user's word processor. This can be done manually by creating the "stamps" to appear on the documents such as "DRAFT," "CLIENT COPY," etc. These stamps are fully scaleable as well as unlimited in color. Alternatively, these stamps can be applied by using automated document marking software for Microsoft Word. This allows each page to be stamped as it is printed with the user selected stamps created electronically. This provides the user with a standarized and consitent document management solution for paper-based workflows.

Ready made decorative rubber stamps

Art stamps have become fashionable in the United States, more so than in Europe. While they are mostly regarded as children's toys in Europe, in the U.S. they are available in many intricate designs and are widely used to decorate various objects.Such art stamps can be used for easy decoration of useful things like paper for letters, greeting cards and similar things, but also can be combined with other techniques to create traditional art.

Risk Factors in Skin Cancer

Doctors cannot explain why one person develops skin cancer and another does not. However, we do know that skin cancer is not contagious. You cannot "catch" it from another person.

Research has shown that people with certain risk factors are more likely than others to develop skin cancer. A risk factor is something that may increase the chance of developing a disease.

Studies have found the following risk factors for skin cancer:

*Ultraviolet (UV) radiation: UV radiation comes from the sun, sunlamps, tanning beds, or tanning booths. A person's risk of skin cancer is related to lifetime exposure to UV radiation. Most skin cancer appears after age 50, but the sun damages the skin from an early age.

UV radiation affects everyone. But people who have fair skin that freckles or burns easily are at greater risk. These people often also have red or blond hair and light-colored eyes. But even people who tan can get skin cancer.

People who live in areas that get high levels of UV radiation have a higher risk of skin cancer. In the United States, areas in the south (such as Texas and Florida) get more UV radiation than areas in the north (such as Minnesota). Also, people who live in the mountains get high levels of UV radiation.

UV radiation is present even in cold weather or on a cloudy day.
* Scars or burns on the skin
* Infection with certain human papillomaviruses
* Exposure to arsenic at work
* Chronic skin inflammation or skin ulcers
* Diseases that make the skin sensitive to the sun, such as xeroderma pigmentosum, albinism, and basal cell nevus syndrome
* Radiation therapy
* Medical conditions or drugs that suppress the immune system
* Personal history of one or more skin cancers
* Family history of skin cancer
* Actinic keratosis: Actinic keratosis is a type of flat, scaly growth on the skin. It is most often found on areas exposed to the sun, especially the face and the backs of the hands. The growths may appear as rough red or brown patches on the skin. They may also appear as cracking or peeling of the lower lip that does not heal. Without treatment, a small number of these scaly growths may turn into squamous cell cancer.
* Bowen's disease: Bowen's disease is a type of scaly or thickened patch on the skin. It may turn into squamous cell skin cancer.

If you think you may be at risk for skin cancer, you should discuss this concern with your doctor. Your doctor may be able to suggest ways to reduce your risk and can plan a schedule for checkups.

Gold Infromation

Gold was among the first metals to be mined because it commonly occurs in its native form, that is, not combined with other elements, because it is beautiful and imperishable, and because exquisite objects can be made from it. Artisans of ancient civilizations used gold lavishly in decorating tombs and temples, and gold objects made more than 5,000 years ago have been found in Egypt. Particularly noteworthy are the gold items discovered by Howard Carter and Lord Carnarvon in 1922 in the tomb of Tutankhamun. This young pharaoh ruled Egypt in the 14th century B.C. An exhibit of some of these items, called "Treasures of Tutankhamun," attracted more than 6 million visitors in six cities during a tour of the United States in 1977-79.

The graves of nobles at the ancient Citadel of Mycenae near Nauplion, Greece, discovered by Heinrich Schliemann in 1876, yielded a great variety of gold figurines, masks, cups, diadems, and jewelry, plus hundreds of decorated beads and buttons. These elegant works of art were created by skilled craftsmen more than 3,500 years ago.

The ancient civilizations appear to have obtained their supplies of gold from various deposits in the Middle East. Mines in the region of the Upper Nile near the Red Sea and in the Nubian Desert area supplied much of the gold used by the Egyptian pharaohs. When these mines could no longer meet their demands, deposits elsewhere, possibly in Yemen and southern Africa, were exploited.

Artisans in Mesopotamia and Palestine probably obtained their supplies from Egypt and Arabia. Recent studies of the Mahd adh Dhahab (meaning "Cradle of Gold") mine in the present Kingdom of Saudi Arabia reveal that gold, silver, and copper were recovered from this region during the reign of King Solomon (961-922 B.C.).

The gold in the Aztec and Inca treasuries of Mexico and Peru believed to have come from Colombia, although some undoubtedly was obtained from other sources. The Conquistadores plundered the treasuries of these civilizations during their explorations of the New World, and many gold and silver objects were melted and cast into coins and bars, destroying the priceless artifacts of the Indian culture.

Nations of the world today use gold as a medium of exchange in monetary transactions. A large part of the gold stocks of the United States is stored in the vault of the Fort Knox Bullion Depository. The Depository, located about 30 miles southwest of Louisville, Kentucky, is under the supervision of the Director of the Mint.

Gold in the Depository consists of bars about the size of ordinary building bricks (7 x 3 5/8 x 1 3/4 inches) that weigh about 27.5 pounds each (about 400 troy ounces; 1 troy ounce equals about 1.1 avoirdupois ounces.) They are stored without wrappings in the vault compartments.

Aside from monetary uses, gold is used in jewelry and allied wares, electrical-electronic applications, dentistry, the aircraft-aerospace industry, the arts, and medical and chemical fields.

The changes in demand for gold and supply from domestic mines in the past two decades reflect price changes. After the United States deregulated gold in 1971, the price increased markedly, briefly reaching more than $800 per troy ounce in 1980. Since 1980, the price has remained in the range of $320 to $460 per troy ounce. The rapidly rising prices of the 1970's encouraged both experienced explorationists and amateur prospectors to renew their search for gold. As a result of their efforts, many new mines opened in the 1980's, accounting for much of the expansion of gold output. The sharp declines in consumption in 1974 and 1980 resulted from reduced demands for jewelry (the major use of fabricated gold) and investment products, which in turn reflected rapid price increases in those years.

Gold is called a "noble" metal (an alchemistic term) because it does not oxidize under ordinary conditions. Its chemical symbol Au is derived from the Latin word "aurum." In pure form gold has a metallic luster and is sun yellow, but mixtures of other metals, such as silver, copper, nickel, platinum, palladium, tellurium, and iron, with gold create various color hues ranging from silver-white to green and orange-red.

Pure gold is relatively soft--it has about the hardness of a penny. It is the most malleable and ductile of metals. The specific gravity or density of pure gold is 19.3 compared to 14.0 for mercury and 11.4 for lead.

Impure gold, as it commonly occurs in deposits, has a density of 16 to 18, whereas the associated waste rock (gangue) has a density of about 2.5. The difference in density enables gold to be concentrated by gravity and permits the separation of gold from clay, silt, sand, and gravel by various agitating and collecting devices such as the gold pan, rocker, and sluicebox.

Mercury (quicksilver) has a chemical affinity for gold. When mercury is added to gold-bearing material, the two metals form an amalgam. Mercury is later separated from amalgam by retorting. Extraction of gold and other precious metals from their ores by treatment with mercury is called amalgamation. Gold dissolves in aqua regia, a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids, and in sodium or potassium cyanide. The latter solvent is the basis for the cyanide process that is used to recover gold from low-grade ore.

The degree of purity of native gold, bullion (bars or ingots of unrefined gold), and refined gold is stated in terms of gold content. "Fineness" defines gold content in parts per thousand. For example, a gold nugget containing 885 parts of pure gold and 115 parts of other metals, such as silver and copper, would be considered 885-fine. "Karat" indicates the proportion of solid gold in an alloy based on a total of 24 parts. Thus, 14-karat (14K) gold indicates a composition of 14 parts of gold and 10 parts of other metals. Incidentally, 14K gold is commonly used in jewelry manufacture. "Karat" should not be confused with "carat," a unit of weight used for precious stones.

The basic unit of weight used in dealing with gold is the troy ounce. One troy ounce is equivalent to 20 troy pennyweights. In the jewelry industry, the common unit of measure is the pennyweight (dwt.) which is equivalent to 1.555 grams.

The term "gold-filled" is used to describe articles of jewelry made of base metal which are covered on one or more surfaces with a layer of gold alloy. A quality mark may be used to show the quantity and fineness of the gold alloy. In the United States no article having a gold alloy coating of less than 10-karat fineness may have any quality mark affixed. Lower limits are permitted in some countries.

No article having a gold alloy portion of less than one-twentieth by weight may be marked "gold-filled," but articles may be marked "rolled gold plate" provided the proportional fraction and fineness designations are also shown. Electroplated jewelry items carrying at least 7 millionths of an inch (0.18 micrometers) of gold on significant surfaces may be labeled "electroplate." Plated thicknesses less than this may be marked "gold flashed" or "gold washed."

Gold is relatively scarce in the earth, but it occurs in many different kinds of rocks and in many different geological environments. Though scarce, gold is concentrated by geologic processes to form commercial deposits of two principal types: lode (primary) deposits and placer (secondary) deposits.

Lode deposits are the targets for the "hardrock" prospector seeking gold at the site of its deposition from mineralizing solutions. Geologists have proposed various hypotheses to explain the source of solutions from which mineral constituents are precipitated in lode deposits.

One widely accepted hypothesis proposes that many gold deposits, especially those found in volcanic and sedimentary rocks, formed from circulating ground waters driven by heat from bodies of magma (molten rock) intruded into the Earth's crust within about 2 to 5 miles of the surface. Active geothermal systems, which are exploited in parts of the United States for natural hot water and steam, provide a modern analog for these gold-depositing systems. Most of the water in geothermal systems originates as rainfall, which moves downward through fractures and permeable beds in cooler parts of the crust and is drawn laterally into areas heated by magma, where it is driven upward through fractures. As the water is heated, it dissolves metals from the surrounding rocks. When the heated waters reach cooler rocks at shallower depths, metallic minerals precipitate to form veins or blanket-like ore bodies.

Another hypothesis suggests that gold-bearing solutions may be expelled from magma as it cools, precipitating ore materials as they move into cooler surrounding rocks. This hypothesis is applied particularly to gold deposits located in or near masses of granitic rock, which represent solidified magma.

A third hypothesis is applied mainly to gold-bearing veins in metamorphic rocks that occur in mountain belts at continental margins. In the mountain-building process, sedimentary and volcanic rocks may be deeply buried or thrust under the edge of the continent, where they are subjected to high temperatures and pressures resulting in chemical reactions that change the rocks to new mineral assemblages (metamorphism). This hypothesis suggests that water is expelled from the rocks and migrates upwards, precipitating ore materials as pressures and temperatures decrease. The ore metals are thought to originate from the rocks undergoing active metamorphism.

The primary concerns of the prospector or miner interested in a lode deposit of gold are to determine the average gold content (tenor) per ton of mineralized rock and the size of the deposit. From these data, estimates can be made of the deposit's value. One of the most commonly used methods for determining the gold and silver content of mineralized rocks is the fire assay. The results are reported as troy ounces of gold or silver or both per short avoirdupois ton of ore or as grams per metric ton of ore.

Placer deposits represent concentrations of gold derived from lode deposits by erosion, disintegration or decomposition of the enclosing rock, and subsequent concentration by gravity.

Gold is extremely resistant to weathering and, when freed from enclosing rocks, is carried downstream as metallic particles consisting of "dust," flakes, grains, or nuggets. Gold particles in stream deposits are often concentrated on or near bedrock, because they move downward during high-water periods when the entire bed load of sand, gravel, and boulders is agitated and is moving downstream. Fine gold particles collect in depressions or in pockets in sand and gravel bars where the stream current slackens. Concentrations of gold in gravel are called "pay streaks."

In gold-bearing country, prospectors look for gold where coarse sands and gravel have accumulated and where "black sands" have concentrated and settled with the gold. Magnetite is the most common mineral in black sands, but other heavy minerals such as cassiterite, monazite, ilmenite, chromite, platinum-group metals, and some gem stones may be present.

Placer deposits have formed in the same manner throughout the Earth's history. The processes of weathering and erosion create surface placer deposits that may be buried under rock debris. Although these "fossil" placers are subsequently cemented into hard rocks, the shape and characteristics of old river channels are still recognizable.

The content of recoverable free gold in placer deposits is determined by the free gold assay method, which involves amalgamation of gold-bearing concentrate collected by dredging, hydraulic mining, or other placer mining operations. In the period when the price of gold was fixed, the common practice was to report assay results as the value of gold (in cents or dollars) contained in a cubic yard of material. Now results are reported as grams per cubic yard or grams per cubic meter.

Through laboratory research, the U.S. Geological Survey has developed new methods for determining the gold content of rocks and soils of the Earth's crust. These methods, which detect and measure the amounts of other elements as well as gold, include atomic absorption spectrometry, neutron activation, and inductively coupled plasma-atomic emissionon spectrometry. These methods enable rapid and extremely sensitive analyses to be made of large numbers of samples.

Gold was produced in the southern Appalachian region as early as 1792 and perhaps as early as 1775 in southern California. The discovery of gold at Sutter's Mill in California sparked the gold rush of 1849-50, and hundreds of mining camps sprang to life as new deposits were discovered. Gold production increased rapidly. Deposits in the Mother Lode and Grass Valley districts in California and the Comstock Lode in Nevada were discovered during the 1860's, and the Cripple Creek deposits in Colorado began to produce gold in 1892. By 1905 the Tonopah and Goldfield deposits in Nevada and the Alaskan placer deposits had been discovered, and United States gold production for the first time exceeded 4 million troy ounces a year--a level maintained until 1917.

During World War I and for some years thereafter, the annual production declined to about 2 million ounces. When the price of gold was raised from $20.67 to $35 an ounce in 1934, production increased rapidly and again exceeded the 4-million-ounce level in 1937. Shortly after the start of World War II, gold mines were closed by the War Production Board and not permitted to reopen until 1945.

From the end of World War II through 1983, domestic mine production of gold did not exceed 2 million ounces annually. Since 1985, annual production has risen by 1 million to 1.5 million ounces every year. By the end of 1989, the cumulative output from deposits in the United States since 1792 reached 363 million ounces.

Consumption of gold in the United States ranged from about 6 million to more than 7 million troy ounces per year from 1969 to 1973, and from about 4 million to 5 million troy ounces per year from 1974 to 1979, whereas during the 1970's annual gold production from domestic mines ranged from about 1 million to 1.75 million troy ounces. Since 1980 consumption of gold has been nearly constant at between 3 and 3.5 million troy ounces per year. Mine production has increased at a quickening pace since 1980, reaching about 9 million troy ounces per year in 1990, and exceeding consumption since 1986. Prior to 1986, the balance of supply was obtained from secondary (scrap) sources and imports. Total world production of gold is estimated to be about 3.4 billion troy ounces, of which more than two-thirds was mined in the past 50 years. About 45 percent of the world's total gold production has been from the Witwatersrand district in South Africa.

The largest gold mine in the United States is the Homestake mine at Lead, South Dakota. This mine, which is 8,000 feet deep, has accounted for almost 10 percent of total United States gold production since it opened in 1876. It has combined production and reserves of about 40 million troy ounces.

In the past two decades, low-grade disseminated gold deposits have become increasingly important. More than 75 such deposits have been found in the Western States, mostly in Nevada. The first major producer of this type was the Carlin deposit, which was discovered in 1962 and started production in 1965. Since then many more deposits have been discovered in the vicinity of Carlin, and the Carlin area now comprises a major mining district with seven operating open pits producing more than 1,500,000 troy ounces of gold per year.

About 15 percent of the gold produced in the United States has come from mining other metallic ores. Where base metals- -such as copper, lead, and zinc--are deposited, either in veins or as scattered mineral grains, minor amounts of gold are commonly deposited with them. Deposits of this type are mined for the predominant metals, but the gold is also recovered as a byproduct during processing of the ore. Most byproduct gold has come from porphyry deposits, which are so large that even though they contain only a small amount of gold per ton of ore, so much rock is mined that a substantial amount of gold is recovered. The largest single source of byproduct gold in the United States is the porphyry deposit at Bingham Canyon, Utah, which has produced about 18 million troy ounces of gold since 1906.

Geologists examine all factors controlling the origin and emplacement of mineral deposits, including those containing gold. Igneous and metamorphic rocks are studied in the field and in the laboratory to gain an understanding of how they came to their present location, how they crystallized to solid rock, and how mineral-bearing solutions formed within them. Studies of rock structures, such as folds, faults, fractures, and joints, and of the effects of heat and pressure on rocks suggest why and where fractures occurred and where veins might be found. Studies of weathering processes and transportation of rock debris by water enable geologists to predict the most likely places for placer deposits to form. The occurrence of gold is not capricious; its presence in various rocks and its occurrence under differing environmental conditions follow natural laws. As geologists increase their knowledge of the mineralizing processes, they improve their ability to find gold.

Nuclear Power Corporation of India

Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited is committed to generate electricity in a safe and commercially viable manner adopting Nuclear Fission Process. With this idea the Corporation builds and operates Nuclear Power Plants at various places.

It is the policy of the corporation to adopt a Management system in various phases viz. Design & development, Procurement, Manufacturing, Construction, Commissioning and Operation so that safety of the plant(s), plant personnel and public is fully assured, and that the plant(s) are operated without any adverse effect on environment, flora & fauna.NPCIL propogates enhancment of the environment and the benefits of nuclear power to the public.

In order to achieve safety and reliability in its Nuclear plant(s) the corporation supports Research and Development, provides necessary resources and work environment for training and development of its own personnel, and assists in development of all others connected with the nuclear power programme, among the other activities.

Management System of the Corporation has been evolved, implemented, maintained and regularly improved to meet the requirements set forth by the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board, India, and also takes into consideration the intents of prevalent national international nuclear and other industry practices. The top management is committed to Quality, Safety & Reliability and enforces them in all phases of the plant(s) by creating appropriate organizational structure and providing resources with requisite delegation of authority. All concerned Functional and Unit Heads have the responsibility to ensure effective implementation of the Management system requirements at the project sites, operating nuclear plants and supporting organizations. Head of Quality Assurance Directorate and Heads of the units have been delegated the authority for suspension of work during the event of significant deviations in the processes and related activities when noticed, till they are resolved.

Responsibility for ensuring overall implementation of the Management System has been entrusted to the Head of Quality Assurance Directorate reporting to the Chairman and Managing Director.

All concerned in the Corporation are required to follow the Management System Program enumerated in this Corporate Management System Document.

Types Of Hospitals

Some patients in a hospital come just for diagnosis and/or therapy and then leave ('outpatients'); while others are 'admitted' and stay overnight or for several weeks or months ('inpatients'). Hospitals are usually distinguished from other types of medical facilities by their ability to admit and care for inpatients.

General Hospitals

The best-known type of hospital is the general hospital, which is set up to deal with many kinds of disease and injury, and typically has an emergency department to deal with immediate threats to health and the capacity to dispatch emergency medical services. A general hospital is typically the major health care facility in its region, with large numbers of beds for intensive care and long-term care; and specialized facilities for surgery, plastic surgery, childbirth, bioassay laboratories, and so forth. Larger cities may have many different hospitals of varying sizes and facilities.

Specialized Hospitals

Types of specialized hospitals include trauma centers, rehabilitation hospitals, children's hospitals, seniors' (geriatric) hospitals, and hospitals for dealing with specific medical needs such as psychiatric problems (see psychiatric hospital), certain disease categories, and so forth.

A hospital may be a single building or a campus. (Many hospitals with pre-20th-century origins began as one building and evolved into campuses.) Some hospitals are affiliated with universities for medical research and the training of medical personnel. Worldwide, most hospitals are run on a non-profit basis by governments or charities. Within the United States, most hospitals are not-for-profit.

Teaching Hospitals

A teaching hospital (or university hospital) combines assistance to patients with teaching to medical students and is often linked to a medical school.

Clinics

A medical facility smaller than a hospital is generally called a clinic, and is often run by a government agency for health services or a private partnership of physicians (in nations where private practice is allowed). Clinics generally provide only outpatient services.