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Missing 'Ice Arches' Contributed to 2007 Arctic Ice Loss

2010-03-08T01:58:00.002-08:00

PASADENA, Calif. – In 2007, the Arctic lost a massive amount of thick, multiyear sea ice, contributing to that year's record-low extent of Arctic sea ice. A new NASA-led study has found that the record loss that year was due in part to the absence of "ice arches," naturally-forming, curved ice structures that span the openings between two land points. These arches block sea ice from being pushed by winds or currents through narrow passages and out of the Arctic basin.

Beginning each fall, sea ice spreads across the surface of the Arctic Ocean until it becomes confined by surrounding continents. Only a few passages -- including the Fram Strait and Nares Strait -- allow sea ice to escape.

"There are a couple of ways to lose Arctic ice: when it flows out and when it melts," said lead study researcher Ron Kwok of NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, Calif. "We are trying to quantify how much we're losing by outflow versus melt."

Kwok and colleagues found that ice arches were missing in 2007 from the Nares Strait, a relatively narrow 30- to 40-kilometer-wide (19- to 25-mile-wide) passage west of Greenland. Without the arches, ice exited freely from the Arctic. The Fram Strait, east of Greenland, is about 400 kilometers (249 miles) wide and is the passage through which most sea ice usually exits the Arctic.

Despite Nares' narrow width, the team reports that in 2007, ice loss through Nares equaled more than 10 percent of the amount emptied on average each year through the wider Fram Strait.

"Until recently, we didn't think the small straits were important for ice loss," Kwok said. The findings were published this month in Geophysical Research Letters.

"One of our most important goals is developing predictive models of Arctic sea ice cover," said Tom Wagner, cryosphere program manager at NASA Headquarters in Washington. "Such models are important not only to understanding changes in the Arctic, but also changes in global and North American climate. Figuring out how ice is lost through the Fram and Nares straits is critical to developing those models."

To find out more about the ice motion in Nares Strait, the scientists examined a 13-year record of high-resolution radar images from the Canadian RADARSAT and European Envisat satellites. They found that 2007 was a unique year – the only one on record when arches failed to form, allowing ice to flow unobstructed through winter and spring.

The arches usually form at southern and northern points within Nares Strait when big blocks of sea ice try to flow through the strait's restricted confines, become stuck and are compressed by other ice. This grinds the flow of sea ice to a halt.

"We don't completely understand the conditions conducive to the formation of these arches," Kwok said. "We do know that they are temperature-dependent because they only form in winter. So there's concern that if climate warms, the arches could stop forming."

To quantify the impact of ice arches on Arctic Ocean ice cover, the team tracked ice motion evident in the 13-year span of satellite radar images. They calculated the area of ice passing through an imaginary line, or "gate," at the entrance to Nares Strait. Then they incorporated ice thickness data from NASA's ICESat to estimate the volume lost through Nares.

They found that in 2007, Nares Strait drained the Arctic Ocean of 88,060 square kilometers (34,000 square miles) of sea ice, or a volume of 60 cubic miles. The amount was more than twice the average amount lost through Nares each year between 1997 and 2009.

The ice lost through Nares Strait was some of the thickest and oldest in the Arctic Ocean.

"If indeed these arches are less likely to form in the future, we have to account for the annual ice loss through this narrow passage. Potentially, this could lead to an even more rapid decline in the summer ice extent of the Arctic Ocean," Kwok said.

For more information about NASA and agency programs, visit: http://www.nasa.gov .

JPL is managed for NASA by the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena.

##

Contact:

Alan Buis
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif.
818-354-0474
alan.buis@jpl.nasa.gov

Kathryn Hansen
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md.
301-352-4638
kathryn.h.hansen@nasa.gov

This text derived from:
http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.cfm?release=2010-056&icid=%27NewsFeaturesHome%27

ICESat's Notable Moments in Science

2010-03-08T01:58:00.001-08:00

Over the last decade, NASA has launched a series of satellites to monitor the health of our planet. One such satellite -- the Ice, Cloud and land Elevation Satellite (ICESat) -- has provided a sustained, big-picture look at ice thickness at Earth's polar regions.

Now, after seven years in orbit and 15 laser-operation campaigns, ICESat has stopped collecting science data. The last of three lasers on the satellite's Geoscience Laser Altimeter System (GLAS) ceased emitting light on Oct. 11, 2009. Attempts to restart the lasers have ended, and NASA is pursing options for satellite decommissioning.

"ICESat's loss is disappointing and it comes at a critical time," said Tom Wagner, cryosphere program manager at NASA Headquarters in Washington. "But we can't lose sight of the fact that ICESat and its team of talented scientists and engineers helped us see the Earth's polar ice caps in a new way. Those observations are feeding a new generation of models to help us figure out where the planet is headed.‪‪"

As the world's first laser-altimeter satellite, ICESat has measured Earth's surface and atmosphere in "unprecedented 3-D detail," said Jay Zwally, ICESat's project scientist at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md. "ICESat has been an outstanding success, despite disappointing limitations in the laser lifetimes. Scientific advances have been made in measuring changes in the mass of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, polar sea ice thickness, vegetation-canopy heights, and the heights of clouds and aerosols."

In the Arctic, for example, scientists used ICESat to map Greenland's dramatic surface elevation, rising to 4,000 meters above sea level. They watched as thin, seasonal sea ice replaced thick, older sea ice as the dominant type in the Arctic Ocean. In Antarctica, scientists achieved a comprehensive inventory of lakes that actively drain or fill under the ice. At both poles, they have tracked glaciers along the coast of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets as they empty into the sea.

Learn more about the satellite's early days and subsequent discoveries in this Flickr image gallery.

Despite the end of ICESat's mission, NASA's observations of Earth's polar regions continue. Operation Ice Bridge began in 2009, becoming the largest airborne survey of Earth's polar ice ever flown. For the next five years, instruments on NASA aircraft will target areas of rapid change to yield an unprecedented 3-D view of Arctic and Antarctic ice sheets, ice shelves, and sea ice. The mission will bridge the gap in satellite data until the launch of ICESat-2, planned for 2015.

"Operation Ice Bridge is allowing us to get much higher resolution data over smaller, targeted regions," said Lora Koenig of NASA Goddard, and acting project scientist for the Ice Bridge mission.

Targeted information from aircraft combined with the broad and consistent coverage from satellites contribute to a more complete understanding of Earth's response to climate change, helping scientists make better predictions of what the future might hold.

What happens when global warming continues?

2009-10-28T04:26:00.001-07:00

Human Health

Climate change may affect people's health both directly and indirectly. For example, heat stress and other heat related health problems are caused directly by very warm temperatures and high humidity. Untreated, heat stress can be a very serious medical problem. Scientists suspect that, in many places, climate change will increase the number of very hot days that occur during the year. More hot days increases the possibility of heat related health problems. Indirectly, ecological disturbances, air pollution, changes in food and water supplies, and coastal flooding are all examples of possible impacts that might affect human health. How people and nature adapt to climate change will determine how seriously it impacts human health. Some people and places are likely to be affected more than others. Generally, poor people and poor countries are less likely to have the money and resources they need to cope with preventing and treating health problems. Very young children and the elderly adults will run the highest risks.

Ecological Systems
Climate change may alter the world's habitats and ecosystems – all living things are included in and rely on these places. Many of these places depend on a delicate balance of rainfall, temperature, and soil type. A rapid change in climate could upset this balance and seriously endanger many living things. Most past climate changes occurred slowly, allowing plants and animals to adapt to the new environment or move somewhere else. However, if future climate changes occur as rapidly as some scientists predict, plants and animals may not be able to react quickly enough to survive. The ocean's ecosystems also could be affected for the same reasons.

Sea Level Rise
Global warming make the sea level become higher. Why? Well, warmer weather makes glaciers melt. A glacier is a large sheet of ice that moves very, very slowly. Some melting glaciers add more water to the ocean. Warmer temperatures also make water expand. When water expands in the ocean, it takes up more space and the level of the sea rises.
Sea level may rise between several inches and as much as 3 feet during the next century. This will affect both natural systems and manmade structures along coastlines. Coastal flooding could cause saltwater to flow into areas where salt is harmful, threatening plants and animals in those areas. For example, an increase in the salt content of the Delaware and Chesapeake bays is thought to have decreased the number of oysters able to live in those waters. Oceanfront property would be affected by flooding, and beach erosion could leave structures even more vulnerable to storm waves. Whether we move back from the water or build barricades in the face of a rising sea, it could cost billions of dollars to adapt to such change. Coastal flooding also may reduce the quality of drinking water in coastal areas.

Crops and Food Supply
Global warming may make the Earth warmer in cold places. People living in these places may have a chance to grow crops in new areas. But climate change also might bring droughts to other places where we grow crops. In some parts of the world, people may not have enough to eat because they cannot grow the food that they need.

Ultraviolet rays & Skin cancer

2009-10-06T03:19:00.000-07:00

Skin cancer is the most common form of cancer in the United States. The two most common types of skin cancer—basal cell and squamous cell carcinomas—are highly curable. However, melanoma, the third most common skin cancer, is more dangerous, especially among young people. About 65%–90% of melanomas are caused by exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light.

Ultraviolet (UV) Light
Ultraviolet (UV) rays are an invisible kind of radiation that comes from the sun, tanning beds, and sunlamps. UV rays can penetrate and change skin cells.
The three types of UV rays are ultraviolet A (UVA), ultraviolet B (UVB), and ultraviolet C (UVC)—
• UVA is the most common kind of sunlight at the earth's surface, and reaches beyond the top layer of human skin. Scientists believe that UVA rays can damage connective tissue and increase a person's risk of skin cancer.
• Most UVB rays are absorbed by the ozone layer, so they are less common at the earth's surface than UVA rays. UVB rays don't reach as far into the skin as UVA rays, but they can still be damaging.
• UVC rays are very dangerous, but they are absorbed by the ozone layer and do not reach the ground.
Too much exposure to UV rays can change skin texture and cause the skin to age prematurely, leading to skin cancer. UV rays also have been linked to eye conditions such as cataracts.

10 best tips for a healthy life

2009-09-15T05:24:00.000-07:00

• Start your day with breakfast.
Breakfast fills your "empty tank" to get you going after a long night without food. And it can help you do better in school. Easy to prepare breakfasts include cold cereal with fruit and low-fat milk, whole-wheat toast with peanut butter, yogurt with fruit, whole-grain waffles or even last night's pizza!
• Get Moving!
It's easy to fit physical activities into your daily routine. Walk, bike or jog to see friends. Take a 10-minute activity break every hour while you read, do homework or watch TV. Climb stairs instead of taking an escalator or elevator. Try to do these things for a total of 30 minutes every day.
• Snack smart.
Snacks are a great way to refuel. Choose snacks from different food groups - a glass of low-fat milk and a few graham crackers, an apple or celery sticks with peanut butter and raisins, or some dry cereal. If you eat smart at other meals, cookies, chips and candy are OK for occasional snacking.
• Work up a sweat.
Vigorous work-outs - when you're breathing hard and sweating - help your heart pump better, give you more energy and help you look and feel best. Start with a warm-up that stretches your muscles. Include 20 minutes of aerobic activity, such as running, jogging, or dancing. Follow-up with activities that help make you stronger such as push-ups or lifting weights. Then cool-down with more stretching and deep breathing.
• Balance your food choices - don't eat too much of any one thing.
You don't have to give up foods like hamburgers, french fries and ice cream to eat healthy. You just have to be smart about how often and how much of them you eat. Your body needs nutrients like protein, carbohydrates, fat and many different vitamins and minerals such as vitamins C and A, iron and calcium from a variety of foods. Balancing food choices from the Food Guide Pyramid and checking out the Nutrition Facts Panel on food labels will help you get all these nutrients.
• Get fit with friends or family.
Being active is much more fun with friends or family. Encourage others to join you and plan one special physical activity event, like a bike ride or hiking, with a group each week.
• Eat more grains, fruits and vegetables.
These foods give you carbohydrates for energy, plus vitamins, minerals and fiber. Besides, they taste good! Try breads such as whole-wheat, bagels and pita. Spaghetti and oatmeal are also in the grain group.
Bananas, strawberries and melons are some great tasting fruits. Try vegetables raw, on a sandwich or salad.
• Join in physical activities at school.
Whether you take a physical education class or do other physical activities at school, such as intramural sports, structures activities are a sure way to feel good, look good and stay physically fit.
• Foods aren't good or bad.
A healthy eating style is like a puzzle with many parts. Each part -- or food -- is different. Some foods may have more fat, sugar or salt while others may have more vitamins or fiber. There is a place for all these foods. What makes a diet good or bad is how foods fit together. Balancing your choices is important. Fit in a higher-fat food, like pepperoni pizza, at dinner by choosing lower-fat foods at other meals. And don't forget about moderation. If two pieces of pizza fill you up, you don't need a third.
• Make healthy eating and physical activities fun!
Take advantage of physical activities you and your friends enjoy doing together and eat the foods you like. Be adventurous - try new sports, games and other activities as well as new foods. You'll grow stronger, play longer, and look and feel better! Set realistic goals - don't try changing too much at once.

Wine may protect skin from harmful radiation

2009-09-02T06:26:00.000-07:00

Studies say that wine can lower skin disease in women. Cancer patients before they undergo a radiation treatment are offered red wine. The red wine helps in minimizing the toxic effects of radiation therapy. Wine is mostly offered to breast cancer patients.

Some components like polyphenols and tannins that are present in wine protect against the harmful effects of radiation.

The researchers found that skin effects caused by radiation is
38.4 % in non-drinkers
31.8 % in women drinking only half a glass of wine per day
13.6 % in those drinking one glass of wine per day
35 % in those drinking two glass of wine per day
Women who take only a glass of wine daily had a much lower risk of suffering skin effects from harmful radiation.

The Apple Mac operating system OS X is on sale

2009-08-28T20:53:00.001-07:00

The Apple Mac operating system OS X software - accessible only as a DVD, not a download - was at first due to hit shops in September however Apple promoted at the last minute. The system will go head-to-head with Microsoft's latest operating system, Windows 7 that will be release in October.

Both will compete with Google’s OS, called Chrome OS, set for release in the later half of 2010.
The Apple has announced the cost as £25 in UK and $29 in US for Mac users who run OS X 10.4.
Its disadvantage is that, it makes easier for third-party developers to take gain of the Mac hardware.

One the other hand, it is the first operating system to come up with inbuilt support for Microsoft Exchange Server, popular email and calendar services used by many companies.

The systems will also works with a new version of the Quicktime player that will allow users to record and turn up their own movies.

Symptoms of Swine Flu

2009-08-11T03:18:00.000-07:00

In children, emergency warning signs that need urgent medical attention include:

• Fast breathing or trouble breathing
• Bluish or gray skin color
• Not drinking enough fluids
• Severe or persistent vomiting
• Not waking up or not interacting
• Being so irritable that the child does not want to be held
• Flu-like symptoms improve but then return with fever and worse cough

In adults, emergency warning signs that need urgent medical attention include:

• Difficulty breathing or shortness of breath
• Pain or pressure in the chest or abdomen
• Sudden dizziness
• Confusion
• Severe or persistent vomiting
• Flu-like symptoms improve but then return with fever and worse cough

Swine flu vaccine manufacturers will start delivering vaccines in September

2009-08-06T22:34:00.000-07:00

World Health Organization said on Thursday that Swine flu vaccine manufacturers will start delivering the vaccines in September for the first batch.

A number of drug makers have started testing swine flu vaccine in humans, and that early safety results should be offered next month, clearing the means for its use. Kieny also insisted that speeding the vaccine to the market will not support its safety, Marie-Paule Kieny, WHO's vaccine director, said.

WHO has recommended that first batch of the vaccines should be given to health care workers, pregnant women and people with health problems.

Kieny said WHO expects to see reports of side effects once the vaccine is given to millions of people, but that deadly side effects will be rare.

She said the agency would work with country officials to detect any sign the vaccine might cause more worrying side effects, like Guillain Barre syndrome, a temporary paralysis disorder reported by hundreds of people after the U.S.'s disastrous 1976 immunization campaign against another variant of swine flu.

U.S purchased million of H1N1 swine flu vaccine.

2009-07-24T00:18:00.000-07:00

The government of U.S. has purchased 195 million doses of H1N1 swine flu vaccine for this autumn vaccination campaign, a U.S. federal official said on Thursday. The Health and Human Services Department of U.S. has purchased 120 million doses of adjuvant.

Five companies are producing H1N1 vaccine for the U.S. they are AstraZeneca’s MedImmune unit, Australia's CSL Ltd, GlaxoSmithKline Plc, Novartis AG and Sanofi-Aventis SA.

In October, World Health Organization and U.S. health officials plan to start vaccinating people against H1N1.Before giving this vaccine to the people this should be approved by the FDA; FDA also likes to speed this process as soon as possible so that it reaches to the people earlier.

People below the age of 25 get sick most frequently, even though most of the 263 deaths which were recorded in the U.S. are between 25 and 49. People under the age of 65 have low risk, because they are exposed to viruses in the same influenza family for years.

Learn what to do in an e-mergency

2009-07-22T09:41:00.000-07:00

If you suspect malware is lurking on your computer, stop shopping, banking, and other online activities that involve user names, passwords, or other sensitive information. Malware could be sending your personal information to identity thieves.

Confirm that your security software is up-to-date, then use it to scan your computer. Delete everything the program identifies as a problem. You may have to restart your computer for the changes to take effect.

If the problem persists after you exhaust your ability to diagnose and treat it, you might want to call for professional help. If your computer is covered by a warranty that offers free tech support, contact the manufacturer. Before you call, write down the model and serial number of your computer, the name of any software you've installed, and a short description of the problem. Your notes will help you give an accurate description to the technician.

If you need professional help, if your machine isn't covered by a warranty, or if your security software isn't doing the job properly, you may need to pay for technical support. Many companies — including some affiliated with retail stores — offer tech support via the phone, online, at their store, or in your home. Telephone or online help generally are the least expensive ways to access support services — especially if there's a toll-free helpline — but you may have to do some of the work yourself. Taking your computer to a store usually is less expensive than hiring a technician or repair person to come into your home.

Once your computer is back up and running, think about how malware could have been downloaded to your machine, and what you could do to avoid it in the future.

Also, talk about safe computing with anyone else who uses the computer. Tell them that some online activity can put a computer at risk, and share the seven practices for safer computing.

Burglar alarms

2009-07-21T10:32:00.000-07:00

Many burglars will avoid breaking into a property with an alarm.

There are many alarm systems on the market. These range from fairly cheap alarms, which you can fit yourself, to more sophisticated systems, costing hundreds of pounds, which need to be installed by professionals. Low-cost alarms are less reliable and can, through false alarms, be a nuisance to both you and your neighbours.

Consider whether you need an audible-only alarm (which sets off a siren or bell) or a monitored alarm (connected to a central 'listening' service). Due to the huge number of false alarms, police will only respond to audible alarms if there is confirmation of suspicious activity - such as a neighbour saying they saw someone or heard glass being broken.

For monitored systems, the monitoring company will check whether any alarm was false - for example, set off by the homeowners entering the wrong access code - and call out the police if necessary. Monitored systems are particularly important for isolated properties.

If you are thinking about installing a burglar alarm, you should do the following.

Ask the crime prevention officer at your local police station for advice before you buy an alarm.
Get at least three quotes and specialist advice from companies that supply alarms. Use companies registered with either the National Security Inspectorate or Security Systems and Alarm Inspection Board.
Talk to your insurance company about the alarm companies they recommend before you decide which best suits your needs. The system should meet British Standard BS4737 or BS6799 (wire-free) or the new European Standard EN50131-1.
Get professional help to install the alarm and to explain how to operate it correctly to make sure that it will work properly.

Remember, an alarm which is not fitted properly can create problems in itself. Don’t fit an alarm yourself unless you have the electrical knowledge and practical skills to do so, it could end up costing you more.

National Security of Japan

2009-07-20T10:32:00.000-07:00

Armed Forces: Article 9 of Constitution precludes existence of offensive military forces. Self-Defense Forces numbered about 246,400 in 1992: Ground Self-Defense Force 156,000, Maritime Self-Defense Force 44,400, and Air Self-Defense Force 46,000. Reserves 48,400.

Military Units: Five armies, five maritime districts, and three air defense forces. Main bases in Hokkaido, eastern Honshu, central and western Honshu and Shikoku, and Kyushu.

Equipment: Ground Self-Defense Force: medium tanks, reconnaissance vehicles, armored personnel carriers, towed and self-propelled howitzers, mortars, single rocket and multiple rocket launchers, air defense guns, surface-to-surface missiles, antitank missiles, fixed-wing aircraft, attack helicopters, and transport helicopters. Maritime Self-Defense Force: submarines, guided missile destroyers, frigates with helicopters, frigates, patrol and coastal combatants, mine warfare ships, amphibious ships, auxiliaries, fixed-wing aircraft, and helicopters. Air SelfDefense Force: ground attack aircraft, fighters, reconnaissance aircraft, airborne early warning aircraft, transport aircraft, surface-to-air missiles, air-to-surface missiles, air-to-air missiles, and air-defense control and warning units.

Military Budget: Approximately US$34.3 billion in fiscal year 1992. Efforts made for political reasons to keep direct defense expenses at about 1 percent of GNP.

Foreign Military Treaty: Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security with United States (1960); can be revoked on one-year's notice by either party and is updated by minutes periodically.

Police Forces: Independent municipal and local police forces, all under supervision of National Police Agency in 1993. National Rural Police at prefectural level.

Care For Trees

2009-07-17T11:00:00.000-07:00

Tree Care

Trees, like other living organisms, have certain basic needs to survive, function, and grow. Understanding what these basic needs are, and providing them to the greatest extent possible, will enable our trees to bestow their optimum benefits.

Soil

Some of the most important activities for a healthy tree are occurring in their roots, in the soil. Good soil has large and small air spaces where water and air can circulate so that roots can absorb water and minerals and exchange carbon dioxide for oxygen. Good soil is also alive with a myriad of organisms which enrich it and improve its structure. Mycorrhizal fungi enhance water and nutrient absorption by roots, earthworms loosen the soil, and other fungi and bacteria decompose organic matter. Maintaining good soil conditions is therefore one of the basic things we need to do for our trees.

Mulch

One of the best things we can do to improve soil conditions is to maintain a layer of organic mulch over the tree's root zone. Mulch protects against soil compaction, adds organic matter to the soil as it decomposes, slows evaporation of water from the soil, and moderates soil temperature. In addition to improving the soil, mulching reduces competition from turf grass and weeds, and protects against damage from mowers and weed whackers

Pest Control

At the other end of the tree, leaves are manufacturing carbohydrates from water and carbon dioxide using chlorophyll and solar energy. These carbohydrates are used in chemical reactions with other nutrients to carry on all of the other functions of the tree. Of course, there are generally animals, insects, and other organisms feasting on the leaves, but as long as they dine in moderation, there will be enough food for them and for the tree. Trees should be regularly monitored so that protective action can be taken before too much defoliation occurs. This action may simply be removing insects by hand or with a spray of water, or it may require some type of pesticide, preferably one that is harmless to non-target life forms. Pest resistant tree species or cultivars, correctly planted in the proper site, and well cared for, are far less likely to ever require such protective measures.

Trunk Protection

Between the roots and the leaves are the trunk and branches containing the tree's vascular system which transports water, dissolves minerals, carbohydrates, and all the other chemicals which are involved in the numerous processes that are carried on in a living tree. The most important thing to remember is that the thin layer of living tissue (phloem) that carries manufactured food from the leaves to the roots lies just inside the bark. Protecting this phloem layer is critical to survival and growth of the tree. The tree trunk must be protected from damage which penetrates the bark and interferes with the phloem layer. Besides affecting the vascular system, openings in the bark provide an entry for harmful insects and diseases. Young trees with thin bark are especially in need of protection.

Remembering and thinking about the basic functions of a tree allows us to provide the care necessary for a healthy, beautiful, and useful tree.

How to quit smoking

2009-07-17T05:00:00.000-07:00

The best way to give up smoking is to join a stop-smoking program. NGOs and additional groups run this course for people who wish to quit smoking. These programs offer plenty of thoughts on how to quit smoking

If you are thinking to quit smoking, choose the right time for therapy. Don't try to quit smoking when you are under stress. Smokers have unusual experiences when they try to quit. Some experience drowsy or very anxious, faint, tense or bad-tempered; while others may pine for tobacco or sweets or have headaches. Normal exercise, sunrise walks, good sleep, a good diet and plenty of water can offer the course of therapy a boost.

One more tool of tobacco rehabilitation is Nicotine replacement therapy. Nicotine replacement therapy uses nicotine chewing gum, nicotine patches, inhalers, nasal sprays and pills. These products generate less nicotine than is present in cigarettes, plus they do not contain tar and other gases.

Counseling sessions with a specialist, drug therapies, yoga, meditation and social support are some of the good habits to follow during and after the course of therapy.

How bacteria Multiplies

2009-07-16T10:35:00.000-07:00

Bacteria need warmth and moisture to grow – that’s why we need to keep certain foods nice and cold in the fridge. Bacteria reproduce by dividing themselves, so one bacterium becomes two, two become four, and so on.

In the right conditions, one bacterium could become several million in eight hours and thousands of million in twelve hours.

This means that if a food is contaminated with a small number of bacteria and you leave it out of the fridge overnight, it could be seriously contaminated by the next day. Then just one mouthful could make you ill. If you put food in the fridge it will stop bacteria from multiplying.

Since you can't see, taste or smell bacteria, the only way you can be sure that food is safe is to follow good food hygiene at all times.

Types of Photography Materials

2009-07-15T10:38:00.000-07:00

Types of Materials

Historical photographs may be daguerreotypes, using copper sheets and mercury vapors, or albumen prints made on very thin papers with an emulsion derived from egg whites. Early photographs were also made with supports of glass and metal and collodion emulsions. In the late 1880s glass negatives were replaced by a clear plastic film made from cellulose nitrate. This was superseded in the 1930s by "safety film" on cellulose triacetate. Triacetate is still used as a film base today in conjunction with polyester film which was introduced in 1960.

Documenting a Photograph
The most important part of a photograph is not the image itself, but the information about the content. Failing memories can lose important stories of the who, what, when, where and how of the photographs. So the very first step in caring for a family or historical collection is recording information about the images. Sit down with the images and record the names of the persons in the image, the date taken and the location. Write it out on either a separate paper or lightly on the back outside edge of the photograph in pencil. Additional information about the occasion when the images was taken, relationship of the person in the photograph, their birth and death dates, who took the image and if there is an original negative will help document the image for later generations.

Organizing Photograph Collections
Photographs may be organized chronologically, by name or by subject. If organizing by name, be sure to list surname and then first name. Women are often only identified by their husband's name--it is better to provide her first name and maiden name if possible. An index to the names and location of originals is very helpful to family members and can be created easily with current computer programs. For the advanced there are cataloging programs in which information can be stored with thumbnails of images. Organizing by year allows one to chronicle the history of a family and location. This can be very helpful in visually documenting a family tree. Subject matter may be used for simplicity of locating images of birds, animals, and locations, if many images exist.

Dont think that one person has to do all the word of identifying, organizing and storing the photographs: make it a family event to get together regularly and reminisce about people, places and events. The work will be part of the fun and will become part of a family legacy.

Storing Photographs
Correct handling of photographs will aid in preserving them for as long as possible.

DOs

Wear lint-free cotton gloves when handling photographs.
Record information on photocopies of images or in pencil on the back near the edge of the photograph.
Archival-quality, acid-free storage materials should be used.
Prints and negatives should be individually stored in sleeves or acid-free envelopes.
Images should be stored flat in acid free boxes or vertically with spacers so they will not slump.

DONTs

Labels and identification stamps should never be applied directly to photographs. Adhesives fail after time and ink damages the photo.
Refrain from using ink or marking pens on either the front or back of photographs, as the ink can bleed into the image area.
Do not store photographs in attics or in the damp basement next to water sources or in storage areas holding cleaning supplies or recently painted rooms. Heat and humidity can cause more rapid deterioration of images. Air pollution from cleaners and car exhaust can rapidly damage images, especially color.
Do not use paper clips, rupper bands or tape on photographs. Paper clips rust and deform the image with pressure. Rubber bands deteriorate and stick to image and the adhesive on tape degrades and the transparent base yellows.
Avoid excess exposure to light, especially sunlight and flourescent. Color photographs will fade rapidly with prolonged exposure.

Photographs Divisions in Library of Congress

2009-07-14T10:34:00.000-07:00

There are more than 725 daguerreotypes in the Prints & Photographs Division. The majority of the images are portraits, but the collection does include early architectural views, outdoor scenes, and copies of works of art.

385 of the daguerreotypes are credited to Mathew Brady's studio. Brady, who today is mainly remembered for the work produced by his studio during the Civil War, opened his first daguerreotype studio in New York City in 1844. The Library has the largest collection of Brady studio daguerreotypes in existence. Most of these were acquired in 1920 from the Army War College. Some of the images are copy daguerreotypes. Portrait sitters represented in the collection include political figures, such as President James K. Polk and Thomas Hart Benton; artists, including Thomas Cole, George Peter Alexander Healy, and Henry Inman; and journalists, Horace Greeley, Henry J. Raymond, and James Gordon Bennett. Many of the sitters are unidentified.

John Plumbe's architectural daguerreotypes of sites in the Washington-Baltimore area are the earliest existing photographic views of buildings and monuments in the nation's capital and its neighboring city. Dating from 1846 or so, the six views include images of the White House, the Capitol, the Patent Office, the General Post Office, and a monument commemorating the Battle of North Point (Baltimore). The Library acquired these views in 1972.

The earliest known portraits of President and Mrs. Abraham Lincoln are daguerreotypes, presented to the Library in 1937 by their granddaughter, Mrs. Charles Isham. The quarter-plate portrait of Lincoln was most likely taken shortly after the thirty-seven year old was first elected to the U.S. House of Representatives. It has been attributed to photographer N.H. Shepherd, who ran a gallery in Springfield, Illinois, in 1846-1847. This attribution is based upon the recollections of a member of the Lincoln and Herndon law office.

In 1996 the Library acquired the Marian S. Carson Collection, an extensive collection of early Americana, which includes nearly 100 daguerreotypes. Most noteworthy is an 1839 daguerreotype self-portrait by Robert Cornelius, believed to be the earliest extant American photographic portrait. Other strengths of the Carson Collection include several street views of Philadelphia from the 1840s; numerous daguerreotypes documenting the McAllister family, including stereo daguerreotype portraits and images made by William Young McAllister, an amateur daguerreotypist; two occupational daguerreotypes of firemen; and a stunning full-length portrait of the artist William Sidney Mount by Mathew Brady.

Many daguerreotypes have come to the Library with the manuscript collections of prominent Americans. Such collections include the Clara Barton Collection, the Gilbert H. Grosvenor Collection of Alexander Graham Bell Family Photographs, the Feinberg/Whitman Collection, the Anson Conger Goodyear Collection of Lincoln images, the Blackwell Family Collection, and the Frances Benjamin Johnston Collection.

The American Colonization Society collection, a group of material related to African American emigration to Liberia, contains thirty daguerreotypes of Liberian government officials and other colonists. The sitters include Joseph Jenkins Roberts, the first president of Liberia; his wife, Jane Roberts; Stephen Allen Benson, Secretary of the Treasury under Roberts; and Edward W. Blyden, who became a prominent educator in Liberia. Five images have the name of the photographer, Augustus Washington, stamped on their brass mats. Washington was a black daguerreotypist who operated a studio in Hartford, Connecticut, until November 1853 when he moved to Liberia. An additional eleven images, housed in identical brass mats and preservers, were also most likely taken by Washington.

In 1999 the Library acquired the Anthony Bardoza Collection which includes more than 50 daguerreotypes, many by black photographers. The collection provides researchers with the opportunity to study the work of black daguerreotypists within the context of their contemporaries. The highlight of the collection is a group of portrait daguerreotypes by J.P. Ball, an African American who operated a studio in Cincinnati, Ohio. The collection also includes more than 25 daguerreotypes by Francis Grice, an obscure black daguerreotypist originally from Haiti, who settled in the U.S. in the 1850s.

Did You Know?

2009-07-13T10:14:00.000-07:00

Safety of Drinking Water If Flooding Occurs

2009-07-10T08:54:00.000-07:00

The Safety Measures

Use bottled water that has not been exposed to flood waters if it is available.
If you don't have bottled water, you should boil water to make it safe. Boiling water will kill most types of disease-causing organisms that may be present. If the water is cloudy, filter it through clean cloths or allow it to settle, and draw off the clear water for boiling. Boil the water for one minute, let it cool, and store it in clean containers with covers.
If you can't boil water, you can disinfect it using household bleach. Bleach will kill some, but not all, types of disease-causing organisms that may be in the water. If the water is cloudy, filter it through clean cloths or allow it to settle, and draw off the clear water for disinfection. Add 1/8 teaspoon (or 8 drops) of regular, unscented, liquid household bleach for each gallon of water, stir it well and let it stand for 30 minutes before you use it. Store disinfected water in clean containers with covers.
If you have a well that has been flooded, the water should be tested and disinfected after flood waters recede. If you suspect that your well may be contaminated, contact your local or State health department or agriculture extension agent for specific advice.

How To Choose Best Hardware

2009-07-09T11:10:00.000-07:00

Types of Rubber Stamps

2009-07-08T11:26:00.000-07:00

Official rubber stamps

The signatures on official documents are verified using a stamp in Europe. Care must be taken to not to lose these stamps, since possessing the stamp would allow forgery of official documents.Company rubber stamps are also called company chop in most Asian countries. "Chop" in this context is actually derived from the Malay word cap.Passport stamps are a common use of very important official rubber stamps.

Business rubber stamps

Rubber stamps for business are custom-made, showing an address, a corporate logo or something similar, or they are bought ready-made. They often have movable parts that allow the user to adjust the date or the wording of the stamp. They are still often used to date incoming mail, memos and similar items, as well as to denote special handling of the document. There are about 10-15 large to medium sized businesses in the UK that are producing stamps of all kinds all day every day. Many smaller businesses exist producing just a few daily.

Business stamps are generally available from stationers or direct from the manufacturer. Popular stamps include address stamps and one line cheque stamps. Some artists have been using such stamps to decorate pieces of art for special effects or in an ironic way.

Automated Rubber Stamps

Document marking can be done from within the user's word processor. This can be done manually by creating the "stamps" to appear on the documents such as "DRAFT," "CLIENT COPY," etc. These stamps are fully scaleable as well as unlimited in color. Alternatively, these stamps can be applied by using automated document marking software for Microsoft Word. This allows each page to be stamped as it is printed with the user selected stamps created electronically. This provides the user with a standarized and consitent document management solution for paper-based workflows.

Ready made decorative rubber stamps

Art stamps have become fashionable in the United States, more so than in Europe. While they are mostly regarded as children's toys in Europe, in the U.S. they are available in many intricate designs and are widely used to decorate various objects.Such art stamps can be used for easy decoration of useful things like paper for letters, greeting cards and similar things, but also can be combined with other techniques to create traditional art.

Risk Factors in Skin Cancer

2009-07-07T10:34:00.000-07:00

Doctors cannot explain why one person develops skin cancer and another does not. However, we do know that skin cancer is not contagious. You cannot "catch" it from another person.

Research has shown that people with certain risk factors are more likely than others to develop skin cancer. A risk factor is something that may increase the chance of developing a disease.

Studies have found the following risk factors for skin cancer:

*Ultraviolet (UV) radiation: UV radiation comes from the sun, sunlamps, tanning beds, or tanning booths. A person's risk of skin cancer is related to lifetime exposure to UV radiation. Most skin cancer appears after age 50, but the sun damages the skin from an early age.

UV radiation affects everyone. But people who have fair skin that freckles or burns easily are at greater risk. These people often also have red or blond hair and light-colored eyes. But even people who tan can get skin cancer.

People who live in areas that get high levels of UV radiation have a higher risk of skin cancer. In the United States, areas in the south (such as Texas and Florida) get more UV radiation than areas in the north (such as Minnesota). Also, people who live in the mountains get high levels of UV radiation.

UV radiation is present even in cold weather or on a cloudy day.
* Scars or burns on the skin
* Infection with certain human papillomaviruses
* Exposure to arsenic at work
* Chronic skin inflammation or skin ulcers
* Diseases that make the skin sensitive to the sun, such as xeroderma pigmentosum, albinism, and basal cell nevus syndrome
* Radiation therapy
* Medical conditions or drugs that suppress the immune system
* Personal history of one or more skin cancers
* Family history of skin cancer
* Actinic keratosis: Actinic keratosis is a type of flat, scaly growth on the skin. It is most often found on areas exposed to the sun, especially the face and the backs of the hands. The growths may appear as rough red or brown patches on the skin. They may also appear as cracking or peeling of the lower lip that does not heal. Without treatment, a small number of these scaly growths may turn into squamous cell cancer.
* Bowen's disease: Bowen's disease is a type of scaly or thickened patch on the skin. It may turn into squamous cell skin cancer.

If you think you may be at risk for skin cancer, you should discuss this concern with your doctor. Your doctor may be able to suggest ways to reduce your risk and can plan a schedule for checkups.

Gold Infromation

2009-07-06T09:49:00.000-07:00

Gold was among the first metals to be mined because it commonly occurs in its native form, that is, not combined with other elements, because it is beautiful and imperishable, and because exquisite objects can be made from it. Artisans of ancient civilizations used gold lavishly in decorating tombs and temples, and gold objects made more than 5,000 years ago have been found in Egypt. Particularly noteworthy are the gold items discovered by Howard Carter and Lord Carnarvon in 1922 in the tomb of Tutankhamun. This young pharaoh ruled Egypt in the 14th century B.C. An exhibit of some of these items, called "Treasures of Tutankhamun," attracted more than 6 million visitors in six cities during a tour of the United States in 1977-79.

The graves of nobles at the ancient Citadel of Mycenae near Nauplion, Greece, discovered by Heinrich Schliemann in 1876, yielded a great variety of gold figurines, masks, cups, diadems, and jewelry, plus hundreds of decorated beads and buttons. These elegant works of art were created by skilled craftsmen more than 3,500 years ago.

The ancient civilizations appear to have obtained their supplies of gold from various deposits in the Middle East. Mines in the region of the Upper Nile near the Red Sea and in the Nubian Desert area supplied much of the gold used by the Egyptian pharaohs. When these mines could no longer meet their demands, deposits elsewhere, possibly in Yemen and southern Africa, were exploited.

Artisans in Mesopotamia and Palestine probably obtained their supplies from Egypt and Arabia. Recent studies of the Mahd adh Dhahab (meaning "Cradle of Gold") mine in the present Kingdom of Saudi Arabia reveal that gold, silver, and copper were recovered from this region during the reign of King Solomon (961-922 B.C.).

The gold in the Aztec and Inca treasuries of Mexico and Peru believed to have come from Colombia, although some undoubtedly was obtained from other sources. The Conquistadores plundered the treasuries of these civilizations during their explorations of the New World, and many gold and silver objects were melted and cast into coins and bars, destroying the priceless artifacts of the Indian culture.

Nations of the world today use gold as a medium of exchange in monetary transactions. A large part of the gold stocks of the United States is stored in the vault of the Fort Knox Bullion Depository. The Depository, located about 30 miles southwest of Louisville, Kentucky, is under the supervision of the Director of the Mint.

Gold in the Depository consists of bars about the size of ordinary building bricks (7 x 3 5/8 x 1 3/4 inches) that weigh about 27.5 pounds each (about 400 troy ounces; 1 troy ounce equals about 1.1 avoirdupois ounces.) They are stored without wrappings in the vault compartments.

Aside from monetary uses, gold is used in jewelry and allied wares, electrical-electronic applications, dentistry, the aircraft-aerospace industry, the arts, and medical and chemical fields.

The changes in demand for gold and supply from domestic mines in the past two decades reflect price changes. After the United States deregulated gold in 1971, the price increased markedly, briefly reaching more than $800 per troy ounce in 1980. Since 1980, the price has remained in the range of $320 to $460 per troy ounce. The rapidly rising prices of the 1970's encouraged both experienced explorationists and amateur prospectors to renew their search for gold. As a result of their efforts, many new mines opened in the 1980's, accounting for much of the expansion of gold output. The sharp declines in consumption in 1974 and 1980 resulted from reduced demands for jewelry (the major use of fabricated gold) and investment products, which in turn reflected rapid price increases in those years.

Gold is called a "noble" metal (an alchemistic term) because it does not oxidize under ordinary conditions. Its chemical symbol Au is derived from the Latin word "aurum." In pure form gold has a metallic luster and is sun yellow, but mixtures of other metals, such as silver, copper, nickel, platinum, palladium, tellurium, and iron, with gold create various color hues ranging from silver-white to green and orange-red.

Pure gold is relatively soft--it has about the hardness of a penny. It is the most malleable and ductile of metals. The specific gravity or density of pure gold is 19.3 compared to 14.0 for mercury and 11.4 for lead.

Impure gold, as it commonly occurs in deposits, has a density of 16 to 18, whereas the associated waste rock (gangue) has a density of about 2.5. The difference in density enables gold to be concentrated by gravity and permits the separation of gold from clay, silt, sand, and gravel by various agitating and collecting devices such as the gold pan, rocker, and sluicebox.

Mercury (quicksilver) has a chemical affinity for gold. When mercury is added to gold-bearing material, the two metals form an amalgam. Mercury is later separated from amalgam by retorting. Extraction of gold and other precious metals from their ores by treatment with mercury is called amalgamation. Gold dissolves in aqua regia, a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids, and in sodium or potassium cyanide. The latter solvent is the basis for the cyanide process that is used to recover gold from low-grade ore.

The degree of purity of native gold, bullion (bars or ingots of unrefined gold), and refined gold is stated in terms of gold content. "Fineness" defines gold content in parts per thousand. For example, a gold nugget containing 885 parts of pure gold and 115 parts of other metals, such as silver and copper, would be considered 885-fine. "Karat" indicates the proportion of solid gold in an alloy based on a total of 24 parts. Thus, 14-karat (14K) gold indicates a composition of 14 parts of gold and 10 parts of other metals. Incidentally, 14K gold is commonly used in jewelry manufacture. "Karat" should not be confused with "carat," a unit of weight used for precious stones.

The basic unit of weight used in dealing with gold is the troy ounce. One troy ounce is equivalent to 20 troy pennyweights. In the jewelry industry, the common unit of measure is the pennyweight (dwt.) which is equivalent to 1.555 grams.

The term "gold-filled" is used to describe articles of jewelry made of base metal which are covered on one or more surfaces with a layer of gold alloy. A quality mark may be used to show the quantity and fineness of the gold alloy. In the United States no article having a gold alloy coating of less than 10-karat fineness may have any quality mark affixed. Lower limits are permitted in some countries.

No article having a gold alloy portion of less than one-twentieth by weight may be marked "gold-filled," but articles may be marked "rolled gold plate" provided the proportional fraction and fineness designations are also shown. Electroplated jewelry items carrying at least 7 millionths of an inch (0.18 micrometers) of gold on significant surfaces may be labeled "electroplate." Plated thicknesses less than this may be marked "gold flashed" or "gold washed."

Gold is relatively scarce in the earth, but it occurs in many different kinds of rocks and in many different geological environments. Though scarce, gold is concentrated by geologic processes to form commercial deposits of two principal types: lode (primary) deposits and placer (secondary) deposits.

Lode deposits are the targets for the "hardrock" prospector seeking gold at the site of its deposition from mineralizing solutions. Geologists have proposed various hypotheses to explain the source of solutions from which mineral constituents are precipitated in lode deposits.

One widely accepted hypothesis proposes that many gold deposits, especially those found in volcanic and sedimentary rocks, formed from circulating ground waters driven by heat from bodies of magma (molten rock) intruded into the Earth's crust within about 2 to 5 miles of the surface. Active geothermal systems, which are exploited in parts of the United States for natural hot water and steam, provide a modern analog for these gold-depositing systems. Most of the water in geothermal systems originates as rainfall, which moves downward through fractures and permeable beds in cooler parts of the crust and is drawn laterally into areas heated by magma, where it is driven upward through fractures. As the water is heated, it dissolves metals from the surrounding rocks. When the heated waters reach cooler rocks at shallower depths, metallic minerals precipitate to form veins or blanket-like ore bodies.

Another hypothesis suggests that gold-bearing solutions may be expelled from magma as it cools, precipitating ore materials as they move into cooler surrounding rocks. This hypothesis is applied particularly to gold deposits located in or near masses of granitic rock, which represent solidified magma.

A third hypothesis is applied mainly to gold-bearing veins in metamorphic rocks that occur in mountain belts at continental margins. In the mountain-building process, sedimentary and volcanic rocks may be deeply buried or thrust under the edge of the continent, where they are subjected to high temperatures and pressures resulting in chemical reactions that change the rocks to new mineral assemblages (metamorphism). This hypothesis suggests that water is expelled from the rocks and migrates upwards, precipitating ore materials as pressures and temperatures decrease. The ore metals are thought to originate from the rocks undergoing active metamorphism.

The primary concerns of the prospector or miner interested in a lode deposit of gold are to determine the average gold content (tenor) per ton of mineralized rock and the size of the deposit. From these data, estimates can be made of the deposit's value. One of the most commonly used methods for determining the gold and silver content of mineralized rocks is the fire assay. The results are reported as troy ounces of gold or silver or both per short avoirdupois ton of ore or as grams per metric ton of ore.

Placer deposits represent concentrations of gold derived from lode deposits by erosion, disintegration or decomposition of the enclosing rock, and subsequent concentration by gravity.

Gold is extremely resistant to weathering and, when freed from enclosing rocks, is carried downstream as metallic particles consisting of "dust," flakes, grains, or nuggets. Gold particles in stream deposits are often concentrated on or near bedrock, because they move downward during high-water periods when the entire bed load of sand, gravel, and boulders is agitated and is moving downstream. Fine gold particles collect in depressions or in pockets in sand and gravel bars where the stream current slackens. Concentrations of gold in gravel are called "pay streaks."

In gold-bearing country, prospectors look for gold where coarse sands and gravel have accumulated and where "black sands" have concentrated and settled with the gold. Magnetite is the most common mineral in black sands, but other heavy minerals such as cassiterite, monazite, ilmenite, chromite, platinum-group metals, and some gem stones may be present.

Placer deposits have formed in the same manner throughout the Earth's history. The processes of weathering and erosion create surface placer deposits that may be buried under rock debris. Although these "fossil" placers are subsequently cemented into hard rocks, the shape and characteristics of old river channels are still recognizable.

The content of recoverable free gold in placer deposits is determined by the free gold assay method, which involves amalgamation of gold-bearing concentrate collected by dredging, hydraulic mining, or other placer mining operations. In the period when the price of gold was fixed, the common practice was to report assay results as the value of gold (in cents or dollars) contained in a cubic yard of material. Now results are reported as grams per cubic yard or grams per cubic meter.

Through laboratory research, the U.S. Geological Survey has developed new methods for determining the gold content of rocks and soils of the Earth's crust. These methods, which detect and measure the amounts of other elements as well as gold, include atomic absorption spectrometry, neutron activation, and inductively coupled plasma-atomic emissionon spectrometry. These methods enable rapid and extremely sensitive analyses to be made of large numbers of samples.

Gold was produced in the southern Appalachian region as early as 1792 and perhaps as early as 1775 in southern California. The discovery of gold at Sutter's Mill in California sparked the gold rush of 1849-50, and hundreds of mining camps sprang to life as new deposits were discovered. Gold production increased rapidly. Deposits in the Mother Lode and Grass Valley districts in California and the Comstock Lode in Nevada were discovered during the 1860's, and the Cripple Creek deposits in Colorado began to produce gold in 1892. By 1905 the Tonopah and Goldfield deposits in Nevada and the Alaskan placer deposits had been discovered, and United States gold production for the first time exceeded 4 million troy ounces a year--a level maintained until 1917.

During World War I and for some years thereafter, the annual production declined to about 2 million ounces. When the price of gold was raised from $20.67 to $35 an ounce in 1934, production increased rapidly and again exceeded the 4-million-ounce level in 1937. Shortly after the start of World War II, gold mines were closed by the War Production Board and not permitted to reopen until 1945.

From the end of World War II through 1983, domestic mine production of gold did not exceed 2 million ounces annually. Since 1985, annual production has risen by 1 million to 1.5 million ounces every year. By the end of 1989, the cumulative output from deposits in the United States since 1792 reached 363 million ounces.

Consumption of gold in the United States ranged from about 6 million to more than 7 million troy ounces per year from 1969 to 1973, and from about 4 million to 5 million troy ounces per year from 1974 to 1979, whereas during the 1970's annual gold production from domestic mines ranged from about 1 million to 1.75 million troy ounces. Since 1980 consumption of gold has been nearly constant at between 3 and 3.5 million troy ounces per year. Mine production has increased at a quickening pace since 1980, reaching about 9 million troy ounces per year in 1990, and exceeding consumption since 1986. Prior to 1986, the balance of supply was obtained from secondary (scrap) sources and imports. Total world production of gold is estimated to be about 3.4 billion troy ounces, of which more than two-thirds was mined in the past 50 years. About 45 percent of the world's total gold production has been from the Witwatersrand district in South Africa.

The largest gold mine in the United States is the Homestake mine at Lead, South Dakota. This mine, which is 8,000 feet deep, has accounted for almost 10 percent of total United States gold production since it opened in 1876. It has combined production and reserves of about 40 million troy ounces.

In the past two decades, low-grade disseminated gold deposits have become increasingly important. More than 75 such deposits have been found in the Western States, mostly in Nevada. The first major producer of this type was the Carlin deposit, which was discovered in 1962 and started production in 1965. Since then many more deposits have been discovered in the vicinity of Carlin, and the Carlin area now comprises a major mining district with seven operating open pits producing more than 1,500,000 troy ounces of gold per year.

About 15 percent of the gold produced in the United States has come from mining other metallic ores. Where base metals- -such as copper, lead, and zinc--are deposited, either in veins or as scattered mineral grains, minor amounts of gold are commonly deposited with them. Deposits of this type are mined for the predominant metals, but the gold is also recovered as a byproduct during processing of the ore. Most byproduct gold has come from porphyry deposits, which are so large that even though they contain only a small amount of gold per ton of ore, so much rock is mined that a substantial amount of gold is recovered. The largest single source of byproduct gold in the United States is the porphyry deposit at Bingham Canyon, Utah, which has produced about 18 million troy ounces of gold since 1906.

Geologists examine all factors controlling the origin and emplacement of mineral deposits, including those containing gold. Igneous and metamorphic rocks are studied in the field and in the laboratory to gain an understanding of how they came to their present location, how they crystallized to solid rock, and how mineral-bearing solutions formed within them. Studies of rock structures, such as folds, faults, fractures, and joints, and of the effects of heat and pressure on rocks suggest why and where fractures occurred and where veins might be found. Studies of weathering processes and transportation of rock debris by water enable geologists to predict the most likely places for placer deposits to form. The occurrence of gold is not capricious; its presence in various rocks and its occurrence under differing environmental conditions follow natural laws. As geologists increase their knowledge of the mineralizing processes, they improve their ability to find gold.

Nuclear Power Corporation of India

2009-07-03T09:39:00.000-07:00

Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited is committed to generate electricity in a safe and commercially viable manner adopting Nuclear Fission Process. With this idea the Corporation builds and operates Nuclear Power Plants at various places.

It is the policy of the corporation to adopt a Management system in various phases viz. Design & development, Procurement, Manufacturing, Construction, Commissioning and Operation so that safety of the plant(s), plant personnel and public is fully assured, and that the plant(s) are operated without any adverse effect on environment, flora & fauna.NPCIL propogates enhancment of the environment and the benefits of nuclear power to the public.

In order to achieve safety and reliability in its Nuclear plant(s) the corporation supports Research and Development, provides necessary resources and work environment for training and development of its own personnel, and assists in development of all others connected with the nuclear power programme, among the other activities.

Management System of the Corporation has been evolved, implemented, maintained and regularly improved to meet the requirements set forth by the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board, India, and also takes into consideration the intents of prevalent national international nuclear and other industry practices. The top management is committed to Quality, Safety & Reliability and enforces them in all phases of the plant(s) by creating appropriate organizational structure and providing resources with requisite delegation of authority. All concerned Functional and Unit Heads have the responsibility to ensure effective implementation of the Management system requirements at the project sites, operating nuclear plants and supporting organizations. Head of Quality Assurance Directorate and Heads of the units have been delegated the authority for suspension of work during the event of significant deviations in the processes and related activities when noticed, till they are resolved.

Responsibility for ensuring overall implementation of the Management System has been entrusted to the Head of Quality Assurance Directorate reporting to the Chairman and Managing Director.

All concerned in the Corporation are required to follow the Management System Program enumerated in this Corporate Management System Document.

Types Of Hospitals

2009-07-02T09:53:00.000-07:00

Some patients in a hospital come just for diagnosis and/or therapy and then leave ('outpatients'); while others are 'admitted' and stay overnight or for several weeks or months ('inpatients'). Hospitals are usually distinguished from other types of medical facilities by their ability to admit and care for inpatients.

General Hospitals

The best-known type of hospital is the general hospital, which is set up to deal with many kinds of disease and injury, and typically has an emergency department to deal with immediate threats to health and the capacity to dispatch emergency medical services. A general hospital is typically the major health care facility in its region, with large numbers of beds for intensive care and long-term care; and specialized facilities for surgery, plastic surgery, childbirth, bioassay laboratories, and so forth. Larger cities may have many different hospitals of varying sizes and facilities.

Specialized Hospitals

Types of specialized hospitals include trauma centers, rehabilitation hospitals, children's hospitals, seniors' (geriatric) hospitals, and hospitals for dealing with specific medical needs such as psychiatric problems (see psychiatric hospital), certain disease categories, and so forth.

A hospital may be a single building or a campus. (Many hospitals with pre-20th-century origins began as one building and evolved into campuses.) Some hospitals are affiliated with universities for medical research and the training of medical personnel. Worldwide, most hospitals are run on a non-profit basis by governments or charities. Within the United States, most hospitals are not-for-profit.

Teaching Hospitals

A teaching hospital (or university hospital) combines assistance to patients with teaching to medical students and is often linked to a medical school.

Clinics

A medical facility smaller than a hospital is generally called a clinic, and is often run by a government agency for health services or a private partnership of physicians (in nations where private practice is allowed). Clinics generally provide only outpatient services.

Mobile Making

2009-06-30T10:05:00.000-07:00

Glass Making

2009-06-29T16:46:00.000-07:00

Cancer Awareness

2009-06-26T08:27:00.000-07:00

Energy saver Bulbs

2009-06-25T10:54:00.000-07:00

The Shortest Life Span

2009-06-23T10:45:00.000-07:00

The gastrotrichs are a phylum of microscopic animals copious in fresh water and oceanic environments. Most fresh water species are part of the periphyton and benthos. Marine species are found mostly interstitially in between sediment particles. The Gastrotrich has the shortest life span of all animals, living for just 3 days.

They are bilaterally symmetric, with a complete gut. They demonstrate eutely, with development proceeding to a particular number of cells, and further growth coming only from an increase in cell size. The body is covered with cilia, especially about the mouth and on the ventral surface, and has two terminal projections with cement glands that serve in adhesion. This is a double-gland system where one gland secretes the glue and another secretes a de-adhesive to sever the connection. Like many microscopic animals, their locomotion is primarily powered by hydrostatics, and they reproduce entirely by parthenogenesis. Originally they were thought to have a body cavity, but this was an artifact created by preservation methods, and they are now known to be acoelomate.

Their relationship to other phyla is unclear. Morphology suggests that they are close to the Gnathostomulida, the Rotifera, or the Nematoda. On the other hand genetic studies place them as close relatives of the Platyhelminthes, the Ecdysozoa or the Lophotrochozoa. About 700 species have been described.

Squad of Doggys

2009-06-22T10:19:00.000-07:00

In an age of technology, none of the various physical devices have yet duplicated the natural instincts and abilities of a dog to track a human being or detect hidden persons or property.

The Dog Squad plays an important role in operational policing in Victoria. Dogs and handlers carry out specific tasks such as tracking offenders, or detecting explosives or narcotics. Dogs can often crawl or jump onto places where it would be impractical or impossible for police members to go.

History

Records show that even in the Middle Ages dogs were maintained by parish constables for the purpose of tracking down wrongdoers, but it is really only over the last 30 years that dogs have been used in substantial numbers by police forces around the world. It was decided that Victoria Police should form a Dog Squad in 1975.

Incident response

Police dog handlers respond to complaints of intruders on premises, break and entering offences, sexual attacks, brawls, prowlers, lost persons and many armed or violent situations. The dogs are trained to specialise in one of three disciplines; general purpose, narcotics and explosives.

General purpose dogs

General purpose dogs are skilled in the areas of tracking, searching and protecting life and property. Handlers and their dogs often work from home within an allocated police district. The dogs used are male German Shepherds and Labradors as they are physically strong, are of a good size and often need to be aggressive. The greatest demand for dogs is at night when a dog's acute sense of smell is most needed. However, there is a 24-hour roster for general-purpose dog teams to ensure there is always at least one team on duty.

Narcotics detection dogs

Narcotics detection dogs search houses, cars or personal belongings. Female German Shepherds and Labradors are preferred for this type of work, as their smaller frame is more suited to work in confined spaces. Handlers and dogs predominantly work on an appointment basis for stations or specialised units requiring the expertise of a dog. Consequently, they can be called upon night or day.

Explosives detection dogs

Explosives detection dogs and handlers search for bombs and other explosive devices in buildings, cars or personal belongings and often work alongside the Special Operations Group (SOG) and bomb technicians. They also regularly visit schools and railway stations at night in the course of routine patrols. Female German Shepherds and Labradors are used.

Operational support

The Dog Squad also provides operational support. It works with the SOG during siege situations or when searching for explosives, and utilises the Air Wing when they require transport in a time critical situation. However, most of their support is given to local operational police.

The polar bear

2009-06-19T10:41:00.000-07:00

It is a close call, but the polar bear is generally considered the largest bear on Earth. A close second is the brown bear, specifically the Kodiak bear. The Kodiak is a subspecies of the brown bear native to Alaska.

The consensus among experts is that the polar bear is the largest, but some believe the Kodiak bear to be larger. Part of the dissension comes from the vagueness of the word "largest." The answer really depends on how "largest" is defined - Heaviest? Longest? Largest ever recorded?

The following data, taken from Gary Brown's Great Bear Almanac (New York, 1993), compares the average measurements of the polar and brown bear.

	Polar Bear	Brown Bear
Average Weight of Mature Male	900-1,500 pounds	500-900 pounds
Heaviest Recorded	2,210 pounds	2,500+ pounds
Average Length of Mature Male	8-8.4 feet	>7-10 feet

The Rafflesia arnoldii.

2009-06-18T10:14:00.000-07:00

The flower with the world's largest bloom is the Rafflesia arnoldii. This rare flower is found in the rainforests of Indonesia. It can grow to be 3 feet across and weigh up to 15 pounds! It is a parasitic plant, with no visible leaves, roots, or stem. It attaches itself to a host plant to obtain water and nutrients. When in bloom, the Rafflesia emits a repulsive odor, similar to that of rotting meat. This odor attracts insects that pollinate the plant.

Another enormous flower found in Indonesia is the Amorphophallus titanum, or Titan arum. It is also known as the "corpse flower" for its unpleasant odor. Like the Rafflesia, the Titan emits the smell of rotting flesh to attract pollinators. Technically, the Titan arum is not a single flower. It is a cluster of many tiny flowers, called an inflorescence. The Titan arum has the largest unbranched inflorescence of all flowering plants. The plant can reach heights of 7 to 12 feet and weigh as much as 170 pounds!

First Coins in World

2009-06-17T10:45:00.000-07:00

The Chinese possibly invented the first metal coins - the earliest known were made before 900BC, discovered in a tomb near Anyang at that time,the coin itself was a replica of more earlier used cowry shells,so it was named as Bronze shell.

Coins originated separately in Ionia-Lydia , China, and India .Excavations carried out at the Anuradhapura Gedige has found Sinhala coins dating back to 400 BC, other excavations have also shown that cowries were used in Sri Lanka prior to 400 BC.

One early coin from Caria, Asia Minor, includes a legend "I am the badge of Phanes," though most of the early Lydian pieces have no writing on them, just symbolic animals. Therefore the dating of these coins relies primarily on archeological evidence, with the most commonly cited evidence coming from excavations at the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, also called the Ephesian Artemision .The first Lydian coin was made of electrum, an alloy of silver and gold. Many early Lydian coins were undoubtedly struck (manufactured) under the authority of private individuals and are thus more akin to tokens than true coins, though because of their numbers it's evident that some were official state issues, with King Alyattes of Lydia being the most frequently mentioned originator of coinage.

The first Indian coins were minted around the 6th century BC by the Mahajanapadas of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. The coins of this period were punch marked coins called Puranas, Karshapanas or Pana.The Mahajanapadas that minted their own coins included Gandhara, Kuntala, Kuru, Panchala, Shakya, Surasena, and Surashtra. Some argue that Indian coins were developed from Western prototypes, which the Indians came in contact with through Babylonian traders.

Some of the earliest coins to be made purely from silver and gold were the silver shekel and gold Derik in the achaemenid Empire in about 500Bc.The first European coin to use Arabic numerals to date the year minted was the Swiss 1424 St. Gallen silver Plappart.

Calculate and Compare Before You Buy

2009-06-16T10:06:00.000-07:00

There are many cost calculators designed to help you decide how much car you can afford. “AWARE”, or Americans Well-informed on Automobile Retail Economics, sponsors an “Auto Finance Calculator” on its website to help consumers make informed car buying decisions. Kelley Blue Book provides tools for comparing car pricing information, and IntelliChoice ranks cars by lowest repair, maintenance and fuel costs.

Consider using the 2/10/60 rule. It assumes a car ownership period of at least five years. Select the top five cars that fit your needs. For each car, double its retail cost, multiply by 10%, and divide that figure by 60. The result should give you the monthly cost to own over a sixty month, or five-year period. Check out the monthly listings of the lowest “True Cost to Own” (TCO) comparisons.

This year EPA is running new road tests that measure gas mileage under a wide variety weather and traffic conditions. The revised numbers should appear on window stickers for 2008 cars. In the meantime, you can use a calculator devised by Kiplinger’s Personal Finance Magazine. With this Kiplinger tool, you can tap into editors’ estimates of the MPG for hundreds of 2007 models using the new EPA standards.

Trees under Threat

2009-06-15T10:18:00.000-07:00

Detailed field surveys show that most of the Delhi roads have limited surface soil for the trees to grow. This bit of bare earth is also being covered with a thick layer of impermeable concrete and tiling to make pavements. Tiling right upto the tree trunk severely hampers air and water absorption. The roots near the surface get destroyed, the trunk cannot expand properly and this ultimately affects its growth and even survival. This is not all. On a typical summer day, the tiles get heated to high temperatures and scorch the root system. The destruction of root systems weakens the tree’s grip on soil, which leads to their uprooting even during mild storms. During tiling, the most fertile topsoil is removed to be replaced by asphalt mixture. This completely ravages the soil, causing soil pollution, which is far more difficult to rectify than air & water pollution. The cemented pavements are frequently dug open to repair wires, etc generating huge amounts of non-degradable ‘debris’. Enormous resources like bricks, cement, labour are utilised for tiling. Instead they can be put to better uses.

Tiling should only be done on roadsides that have heavy pedestrian movement, otherwise it should be avoided. While tiling, if a tree is growing in the way, a minimum soil / kutcha space of 6 x 6 feet around the trees should be left untiled. Using porous tiles or badarpur are other options.

These are not the only threats. The tree guard required to protect young saplings, needs to be removed once the tree is grown. Otherwise the metal tree guard restricts the growth of the trunk, cutting into the tree and damaging it. The advertisements nailed to the trees aggravate the situation. We are treating trees like sign-posts. Let us remember that they are also living things and need good care.

Artificial Rain Created to Fight Latest Blue Algae Outbreak in Changchun

2009-06-12T13:08:00.000-07:00

The meteorological department in Changchun, capital of northeast China's Jilin Province, has fired rockets into the air above a reservoir choked by blue-green algae to create artificial rain in an effort to curb the latest algae outbreak.

The city government has set aside ten million yuan to combat an outbreak of blue-green algae in Xinlicheng reservoir that provides water to the city, a government spokesman announced on Wednesday.

Swathes of blue and green algae began to appear last Wednesday in Xinlicheng Reservoir, one of the city's major water sources for100,000 residents.

On Tuesday, the water supply from both Xinlicheng and Shitoukoumen Reservoir was cut off. The supply from Xinlicheng has been shut off indefinitely but the local environmental authorities ruled that Shitoukoumen had not been affected.

Changchun used 770,000 tons of water per day before the outbreak of blue algae but the daily supply has plunged by 50,000 tons since the Xinlicheng reservoir water source was cut.

Changchun mayor Cui Jie said the ten million yuan would be spent on expanding pipes linking the city to the reservoir of Shitoukoumen, and transporting water with fire engines.

"We must do our best to ensure the drinking water supply for our citizens," said Cui, adding that he was considering closing car washes.

Recent outbreaks of blue-green algae in key lakes in eastern and southwestern China are mainly attributed to pollutants from chemical factories, but this time the finger is being pointed at agricultural fertilizers.

The algae may have been caused by fertilizers and pesticides from nearby cropland, local authorities say.

High temperatures and scant rainfall since June also contributed to the algae bloom and recent downpours have nourished the algae.

Changchun is home to a population of more than seven million, with 2.7 million living in the downtown area. The reservoir has a water storage capacity of 592 million cubic meters.

In the last two months, blue-green algae outbreaks have been reported in Taihu Lake, Chaohu Lake and the southwestern Dianchi Lake, endangering water supplies.

On July 4, water supplies to 200,000 people in Shuyang county, Jiangsu Province, were halted for more than 40 hours after ammonia and nitrogen were found in a local river.

The history of zoos

2009-06-11T09:57:00.000-07:00

Human interest in keeping animals dates back to at least 1500 BC when Queen Hatshepsut of Egypt built a zoo. Many zoos were created by rulers in Africa, India and China to demonstrate their wealth and power.

The Greeks established the first zoos to study animal behaviour. They charged admission to view the specimens, and set up an education process. One of the most notable teachers at a Greek zoo was Aristotle. One of his best-known students was Alexander the Great, who collected many animals for the zoos.

British and European exploration of the world in the 18th and 19th centuries led to the discovery of many species of animals that they considered to be unusual. This encouraged the keeping of animals as exotica in Europe and Britain. The idea of zoos as places of entertainment also developed.

Hazel Blears launches search for role models to inspire Black boys

2009-05-20T02:52:00.001-07:00

A major national search to recruit Black male role models gets underway today as Communities Secretary Hazel Blears calls for motivational Black and mixed heritage men to take a lead in inspiring the next generation of Black boys to achieve and succeed.

The creation of the first ever Black Boys' National Role Model programme is part of a package of measures to help raise the aspirations and attainment of some of today's young Black men.

Hazel Blears wants to encourage Black and mixed heritage men from all walks of life to come forward and play a part in lifting the sights of young Black boys.

A national modelling programme was one of the recommendations made to Government by an independent panel made up of members who had an in depth understanding of the realities of the lives of Black Boys and the barriers they face to success. The Government has responded positively to their report and is committed to taking action on all the REACH recommendations.

Too often role models can be celebrities and those who glamorise a world of crime, drugs, guns and gangs. The national role modelling programme will seek to challenge stereotypes, shine a light on positive images of Black male achievement - from businessmen to doctors, lawyers, artists and community workers. REACH is about getting these positive images onto the radar and ensuring that more young people know that every route is open to them.

Wright Brothers National Memorial NPS Salutes Outer Banks Group Volunteers

2009-05-11T05:07:00.000-07:00

Several volunteers were recognized for their achievement of excellence. Jean and Bud Brinkley, Marjorie and John Grubka, Fred Hattman, Shirley Helms, Steve Jones, Mike Staples, and Julie and Ed Stetser received the National Park Service Volunteer Master Ranger Corp recognition for each donating over 500 hours of service last year.

"This tremendous number of donated hours equals almost 11 full-time paid staff members," stated Superintendent Michael B. Murray. "The support provided by our volunteers truly keeps us going. We are proud to recognize them during National Volunteer Week, April 27 to May 3."

Volunteers support a myriad of visitor services and special projects. Volunteers working at the visitor centers, lighthouses, supporting programs, and out on the beach with resource management are the most visible to the public. Volunteers also work with the Ocracoke ponies, in park offices, tracking use permits, photographing special events, and providing support for maintenance projects.

Dare and Hyde county residents comprise a majority of the volunteer corps, which is supplemented by non-local volunteers, and interns. Some organizations, such as the Cape Hatteras Anglers Club and Cape Hatteras Bird Club, also volunteer their services providing special programming for park visitors.

Bra Boys

2009-05-04T05:46:00.000-07:00

Bra Boys, narrated by Russell Crowe, is an entertaining and insightful story about the infamous surf community of Sydney's eastern suburb, Maroubra. The documentary is told from the eyes of the 'Bra Boys' themselves, describing a life of struggle where the only places they can turn to is the surf and their brotherhood.

The story focuses on the life of the Abberton brothers: Sunny (writer), Koby, Jai and Dakota. The four hold family loyalty in the highest regard.

Growing up in a home with a heroin-addicted mother, the boys learned to look after each other from a young age. The home of their late grandmother Mavis - known to everyone as 'Ma' - served as a refuge for the boys and their friends.

Maroubra, a poverty-ridden suburb made up of commission flats that sits 'in the shadow of Long Bay Jail', seems to offer minimal options for its youths, who skip many days of school, lack any sort of direction and tend to become heavily involved with drugs, crime and violence.

The documentary shows the deep hatred the group have for police, and the instant mistrust of anyone outside their tribe, evident in the fighting to 'protect' their local beaches. Symbolising the strong loyalty of the group, Koby proudly sports the famous tattoo on his chest, with the words 'My Brother's Keeper'.

On trial for the murder of convicted rapist and murderer Tony Hines, Bra Boy Jai Abberton emphasises the unfortunate path taken by many: drugs and jail. The boys have been in the news for all of the wrong reasons, with one of the biggest incidents occurring in 2002, when a brawl broke out between the boys and off-duty police.

On the other hand the Bra Boys are well known for their surfing talent, producing many 'big wave' surfers including pro surfer Koby Abberton.

In one scene the brothers jet-ski out to one of the world's thickest and roughest waves, off the south-west coast of Australia. At the wave known as 'The Cyclops', the boys show off their extreme talent and utter fearlessness.

What Challenges Are Boys Facing and What Opportunities Exist to Address those Challenges?

2009-04-27T01:48:00.000-07:00

Many adolescent boys are doing well. They graduate from high school, stay out of trouble, and reach adulthood prepared for the world of work and the responsibilities of family. For young men like these, opportunities have never been greater.

The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services' Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation commissioned a review of the literature on the risks and assets that affect boys ages 10 through 18. By summarizing and synthesizing the existing literature, the project aims to pinpoint what strengths make some boys likely to succeed and what risks, or challenges, increase the likelihood that they will struggle. It does not make an effort to compare boys to girls; it does not intend to imply that an issue for boys isn't also relevant for girls. In fact, research shows that many of the same risk and protective factors, as well as interventions, may be relevant for both boys and girls.

A major goal of the project is to provide information about approaches that help boys stay on the right track. These approaches range from formal programs, such as anti-drug or anti-gang programs, to environmental interventions, such as when a community bands together to create safe places for youth to congregate, to more informal approaches, such as when a concerned adult befriends a troubled adolescent.

The project has produced a brief on key findings, an annotated bibliography, and fact sheets focusing on seven research areas, or domains: mortality and victimization, juvenile delinquency, substance abuse, mental health, education, employment, and constructive use of time. The project examines the influence, both positive and negative, of boys' characteristics; their families, peers, and schools; and their communities. This project also highlights the positive impact that caring adults in families, schools, and communities can have on the well-being of boys and young men.

House arrest for 'drug delivery boy'

2009-04-17T22:45:00.000-07:00

Despite concerns from Crown that a conditional sentence could not "control" him, a provincial court judge has sentenced a 23-year-old Courtenay man to one year house arrest for trafficking cocaine.

Phillip Morgan Saunders was initially arrested on Nov. 16, 2007, after police smelled marijuana during a scuffle over a bottle of vodka in Saunders' possession.

When returned to the detachment, a small amount of pot as well as 0.6 grams of cocaine were found on Saunders.

"He was rambling on about how the marijuana, the vodka and the coke were all his and he was bringing them home," said federal Crown prosecutor Bonnie Macdonald.

About three months later, as Saunders awaited trial on the drug possession charge, an unidentified source told police that a particular phone number was being used for a dial-a-dope operation.

Police called the number and set up a buy for three spitballs, or 1.2 grams, of cocaine. They were met by Saunders.

Defence lawyer Michael Harris said his client was not the one behind the dial-a-dope operation.

More information : http://www.canada.com/House+arrest+drug+delivery/1506620/story.html

Helium rains inside Jovian planets

2009-04-10T02:18:00.000-07:00

LIVERMORE, Calif. – Models of how Saturn and Jupiter formed may soon take on a different look.

By determining the properties of hydrogen-helium mixtures at the millions of atmospheres of pressure present in the interior of Saturn and Jupiter, physicists at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign have determined the temperature at a given pressure when helium becomes insoluble in dense metallic hydrogen. The results are directly relevant to models of the interior structure and evolution of Jovian planets.

Hydrogen and helium are the two lightest and most common elements in the universe. Because of their ubiquitous nature, they are critical in cosmological nucleosynthesis and are essential elements of stars and giant planets. Hydrogen by itself in the observable universe provides clues to the origin and large-scale structures of galaxies.

However, scientists have struggled to determine what conditions are needed for the two elements to mix.

Ornithopter

2009-04-05T23:19:00.000-07:00

Man has long been fascinated with birds and their ability to fly. Before the Wright Brothers achieved their first heavier-than-air controlled flight in 1903, hundreds of men and women attempted to fly in gliders, airships, balloons and other fantastic innovations. As early as the 15th century, Leonardo da Vinci studied the flight and wing structure of birds. His detailed design of a human-powered ornithopter - an aircraft deriving its thrust and lift from flapping wings - was based on these studies. Although he never actually flew the machines he designed, his ideas were replicated and modified throughout the next four centuries. In 1871, Alphonse Penaud successfully flew a rubber-powered model ornithopter - the Planophore - for a distance of 181 feet in 11 seconds. Since then, many other inventors have developed ornithopters. This turn-of-the-century photograph pictures Arnold Coblitz in his ornithopter. The engraving - Flugmaschine - depicts an ornithopter constructed and tested unsuccessfully by Swiss watchmaker Jakob Degen living in Vienna in the early 1800s. Even today, a team based at the University of Toronto's Institute for Aerospace Studies is conducting research on ornithopters.

US, Afghan troops kill 11 militants in south

2009-03-26T23:01:00.000-07:00

International and Afghan troops killed 11 militants when a raid in Afghanistan's volatile south turned into a gunbattle with Taliban fighters, U.S. forces said Friday.

Fighting broke out during the Thursday night raid targeting a key Taliban insurgent in a village in Helmand province, the military said in a statement. The forces came under fire from militants inside a compound as they advanced and returned fire.

The U.S. military said the insurgent targeted in the attack was involved in making bombs that were used for roadside attacks in northern Helmand province.

One insurgent was captured and 11 killed in the fighting in Lashkar Gar district, west of the provincial capital of Kandahar. The statement said one militant tried to use women and children in the compound as human shields, but the force managed to shoot the man without harming the civilians.

A village elder told coalition forces the Taliban forced them to shelter the group for the night, the statement said.

The U.S. is sending 17,000 additional troops to Afghanistan to stamp out the resurgent Taliban who have taken de facto control of the south and continue to mount attacks through much of the rest of the country.

Senior U.S. officials say President Barack Obama also plans to deploy 4,000 trainers to build up Afghan forces as part of a new strategy to be announced Friday.
Source http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5hvWEqwq3CrRvaQCmt21MfoYhjZJQD9765HJO3

Climate-related Changes on the Antarctic Peninsula Being Driven from the Top and the Bottom of the Ecosystem

2009-03-18T22:32:00.000-07:00

Scientists have long established that the Antarctic Peninsula is one of the most rapidly warming spots on Earth. Now, new research using detailed satellite data indicates that the changing climate is affecting not just the penguins at the apex of the food chain, but simultaneously the microscopic life that is the base of the ecosystem.

The research was published in the March 13 edition of Science magazine by researchers with the National Science Foundation's (NSF) LTER (Long Term Ecological Research) program. The LTER, which has 26 sites around the globe, including two in Antarctica, enables tracking of ecological variables over time, so that the mechanisms of climate change impact on ecosystems can be revealed. The specific findings were made by researchers with the Palmer LTER, using data collected near Palmer Station and from the research vessel Laurence M. Gould. Both Palmer Station and the Laurence M. Gould are operated by NSF's Office of Polar Programs.

Hugh Ducklow, of the Marie Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole, the principal investigator for the Palmer LTER project, said that the new findings are scientifically significant, but they also are consistent with the climate trends on the Peninsula and other observed changes.

However, it took new scientific tools and analytical work by post-doctoral fellow Martin Montes Hugo to verify scientifically what scientists had been inferring from other changes for some time.

"I have to say the findings weren't a surprise; I think with the weight of all the other observations that we had on changes happening to organisms higher up in the food chain, we thought that phytoplankton weren't going to escape this level of climate change," Ducklow said. "But it took Martin to have all the right tools and the abilities to go in and do the analysis and prove what we suspected."

Those data, gathered over years, were essential to tracking patterns that supported the new findings.

"That's the beauty of the LTER program," he added.

Over the past 50 years, winter temperatures on the Peninsula have risen five times faster than the global average and the duration of sea-ice coverage has decreased. A warm, moist maritime climate has moved into the northern Peninsula region, pushing the continental, polar conditions southward.

As a result, the prevalence of species that depend on sea ice, such as Adelie penguins, Antarctic silverfish and krill, has decreased in the Peninsula's northern region, and new species that typically avoid ice, such as Gentoo and Chinstrap penguins, and lanternfish are moving into the habitat.

The LTER researchers show that satellite data on ocean color, temperature, sea ice and winds, indicate that phytoplankton at the base of the food chain are also responding to changes in sea-ice cover and winds driven by climate change. However, there are contrasting changes in northern and southern regions, and the satellite and ground-based data provide insights into the forcing mechanisms for each region.

The researchers weren't surprised that primary productivity in the waters of the Peninsula has changed dramatically over the last 20 years. But the contrasting changes in the north and south were a surprise.

Galactic Dust Bunnies Found to Contain Carbon After All

2009-03-12T22:11:00.000-07:00

Galactic Dust Bunnies Found to Contain Carbon After All Using NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope, researchers have found evidence suggesting that stars rich in carbon complex molecules may form at the center of our Milky Way galaxy.

This discovery is significant because it adds to our knowledge of how stars form heavy elements -- like oxygen, carbon and iron -- and then blow them out across the universe, making it possible for life to develop.

Astronomers have long been baffled by a strange phenomenon: Why have their telescopes never detected carbon-rich stars at the center of our galaxy even though they have found these stars in other places? Now, by using Spitzer's powerful infrared detectors, a research team has found the elusive carbon stars in the galactic center.

"The dust surrounding the stars emits very strongly at infrared wavelengths," says Pedro García-Lario, a research team member who is on the faculty of the European Space Astronomy Center, the European Space Agency's center for space science. He co-authored a paper on this subject in the February 2009 issue of the journal Astronomy & Astrophysics.

"With the help of Spitzer spectra, we can easily determine whether the material returned by the stars to the interstellar medium is oxygen-rich or carbon-rich."

The team of scientists analyzed the light emitted from 40 planetary nebulae – blobs of dust and gas surrounding stars -- using Spitzer's infrared spectrograph. They analyzed 26 nebulae toward the center of the Milky Way -- a region called the "Galactic Bulge" -- and 14 nebulae in other parts of the galaxy. The scientists found a large amount of crystalline silicates and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, two substances that indicate the presence of oxygen and carbon.

This combination is unusual. In the Milky Way, dust that combines both oxygen and carbon is rare and is usually only found surrounding a binary system of stars. The research team, however, found that the presence of the carbon-oxygen dust in the Galactic Bulge seems to be suggestive of a recent change of chemistry experienced by the star.

The scientists hypothesize that as the central star of a planetary nebula ages and dies, its heavier elements do not make their way to the star's outer layers, as they do in other stars. Only in the last moments of the central star's life, when it expands and then violently expels almost all of its remaining outer gasses, does the carbon become detectable. That's when astronomers see it in the nebula surrounding the star. "The carbon produced through these recurrent 'thermal pulses' is very inefficiently dredged up to the surface of the star, contrary to what is observed in low-metallicity, galactic disk stars," said García-Lario. "It only becomes visible when the star is about to die."

This study supports a hypothesis about why the carbon in some stars does not make its way to the stars' surfaces. Scientists believe that small stars -- those with masses up to one-and-a-half times that of our sun -- that contain lots of metal do not bring carbon to their surfaces as they age. Stars in the Galactic Bulge tend to have more metals than other stars, so the Spitzer data support this commonly held hypothesis. Before the Spitzer study, this hypothesis had never been supported by observation.

This aging and expelling process is typical of all stars. As stars age and die, they burn progressively heavier and heavier elements, beginning with hydrogen and ending with iron. Towards the end of their lives, some stars become what are called "red giants." These dying stars swell so large that if one of them were placed in our solar system, where the sun is now, its outermost border would touch Earth's orbit. As these stars pulsate – losing mass in the process – and then contract, they spew out almost all of their heavier elements. These elements are the building blocks of all planets, including our own Earth (as well as of human beings and any other life forms that may exist in the universe).

FDA CLEARS CAMERA PILL TO PHOTOGRAPH SMALL INTESTINE

2009-03-06T22:00:00.000-08:00

FDA today cleared for marketing a swallowable capsule containing a tiny camera that snaps pictures twice a second as it glides through the small intestine.

The product represents a technological advance in methods of examining the gastrointestinal tract.

The device, made by Given Imaging Ltd., an Israeli company with North American headquarters in Norcross, Ga., is intended to visualize the inside of the small intestine to detect polyps, cancer, or causes of bleeding and anemia.

Currently the standard method of detecting abnormalities in the intestines is through endoscopic examination in which doctors advance a scope down into the small intestine via the mouth. However, these scopes are unable to reach through all of the 20-foot-long small intestine, and thus provide only a partial view of that part of the bowel.

The camera capsule is designed to take photos of the entire small intestine, enabling doctors to see areas that the endoscope cannot reach.

The device, called the Given Diagnostic Imaging System, comes in capsule form and contains a camera, lights, transmitter and batteries. The capsule has a clear end that allows the camera to view the lining of the small intestine.

The patient swallows the capsule, and the natural muscular waves of the digestive tract propel it forward through the stomach, into the small intestine, through the large intestine, and then out in the stool. The capsule transmits the images to a data recorder, which is worn on a belt around the patient's waist. The physician then transfers the stored data to a computer for processing and analysis.

The battery has an expected life of eight hours, which is generally long enough to photograph the small intestine, but not long enough to photograph the entire gastrointestinal tract.

FDA cleared the device based on both animal and clinical studies of safety and effectiveness conducted by the manufacturer. In one of the human trials, Given Imaging studied the use of the camera capsule in patients with suspected small intestine disease. All patients had signs of either unexplained chronic gastrointestinal blood loss or anemia. All had undergone standard endoscopic and radiological evaluations prior to receiving the capsule.

Study results showed that the camera pill was safe, without any side effects, and was able to detect abnormalities in the small intestine, including parts that cannot be reached by the endoscope.

FDA cleared the device for use along with--not as a replacement for--other endoscopic and radiological evaluations of the small bowel. The capsule was not studied in the large intestine.

Yahoo's Bartz Shows Who's Boss

2009-02-27T01:08:00.000-08:00

By Robert D. Hof

Just six weeks after taking over as chief executive of Yahoo! (YHOO) from co-founder Jerry Yang, Carol Bartz has now made it quite clear who's in charge and what demands she'll place on her executive team. On Feb. 26, Bartz announced an overhaul of the embattled company's management. The new, streamlined structure is intended to make the company "a lot faster on its feet," Bartz wrote in a post on Yahoo's official blog.

In one of the biggest changes, Chief Financial Officer Blake Jorgensen, who joined Yahoo in June 2007, will leave in the next few months after a new CFO is chosen. Jorgensen was a close ally of former Yahoo President Sue Decker, who left in January after being passed over for the top job. Jorgensen's departure follows those of mobile chief Marco Boerries earlier this week and news head Neeraj Khemlani, who's leaving for Hearst as vice-president and special assistant to the CEO for digital media.

The changes, though largely expected after recent reports in the blog BoomTown, are no less momentous for a company that for years has been hobbled by slow decision-making and ineffective execution on those decisions. As far back as 2006, one executive who has since left, Brad Garlinghouse, penned a now-famous "Peanut Butter Manifesto" that outlined those management problems. The new management organization has all major executives reporting directly to Bartz, who lamented in her blog post that there's "plenty that has bogged this company down." "It looks like she isn't afraid to go in with a chain saw," says Kevin Lee, CEO of search marketing firm Didit.

Source www.businessweek.com/technology/content/feb2009/tc20090226_871329.htm?chan=technology_technology+index+page_top+stories

Cox's Bazar

2009-02-17T03:36:00.000-08:00

Miles of golden sands, towering cliffs, surfing waves, rare conch shells, colorful Pagodas, Buddhist Temples and delightful sea-food - all this makes what Cox's Bazar is today , the tourist capital of Bangladesh. The World's longest uninterrupted (120 km.) beach slopes here down to the blue waters of the Bay of Bengal against the picturesque background of a chain of hills covered with deep green forests.

Cox's Bazar is one of the most attractive tourist spots in the world. The warm, shark free, waters are good for bathing and swimming & while the sandy beaches offer opportunities for sun-bathing.

The beauty of the setting-sun behind the waves of the sea is simply captivating. Locally made cigars and handloom products of the tribal Rakhyne families are good buys.

Located at a distance of 152 km. south of Chittagong, Cox's Bazar is connected both by air and road from Dhaka and Chittagong.

Visit to the fascinating picnic spots at Himchari and Teknaf, the Buddhist Temple at Ramu and nearby islands of Sonadia and St. Martin's, Inani Beach and Moheshkhali are certain to become unforgettable experiences for every visitor.

Paleoclimatology

2009-02-12T02:42:00.000-08:00

Paleoclimatology is the study of climate prior to the widespread availability of records of temperature, precipitation and other instrumental data. NOAA is particularly interested in the last few thousand years because this is the best dated, best sampled part of the past climatic record and can help us establish the range of natural climatic variability in a period prior to global-scale human influence.

Environmental recorders are used to estimate past climatic conditions and thus extend our understanding far beyond the 100+ year instrumental record. "Proxy" records of climate have been preserved in tree rings, locked in the skeletons of tropical coral reefs, extracted as ice cores from glaciers and ice caps, and buried in laminated sediments from lakes and the ocean.

Electronic Transactions Ordinance

2009-02-04T23:28:00.000-08:00

To provide a clear legal framework for the conduct of e-business in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, the Electronic Transactions Ordinance (Cap. 553) (the Ordinance) was enacted on 5 January 2000. The PDF file format Electronic Transactions (Amendment) Ordinance 2004 (the Amendment Ordinance) was also enacted and came into operation on 30 June 2004 to update and improve the Ordinance. In general, the Ordinance, as amended by the Amendment Ordinance, seeks to -

accord electronic record and electronic signature (please see the note below) the same legal status as that of their paper-based counterparts; and

establish a voluntary recognition scheme for certification authorities to enhance public confidence in electronic transactions.

(Note : For transactions not involving Government entities, a signature requirement under the law can be met by any form of electronic signature so long as it is reliable, appropriate and agreed by the recipient of the signature. For transactions involving Government entities, a signature requirement under the law can be satisfied by digital signature.)

Green supercomputing paves the way for sharing scientific research and collaboration

2009-01-28T23:09:00.000-08:00

Energy efficiency ranks second when compared to renewable power generation as a solution to climate change, but for Phillip Dickens, a professor at the University of Maine, it is first in the world of supercomputing.

With the evolution of supercomputers over the last few years, speed, memory and capability have increased tremendously. The early models of computers were enormous in size, often filling a large room. One of the challenges of having a computer this size was the large amount of heat that it generated and how to keep it cool. Two dominant factors that have influenced supercomputer design are Moore's Law and economies of scale.

Today, a modern desktop computer running at 2.66 GHz is more powerful than a 10-year-old supercomputer, and costs considerably less.

In addition, parallelization allows for several smaller parts to work simultaneously and limits the amount of information that can be transferred between processing units. Clusters of computers can also be programmed to function as a single large computer. There are many possibilities that can maximize the energy efficiency of the hardware and software of supercomputers.

Dickens received a two year, $200,000 National Science Foundation (NSF) research grant that funded the development of a scientific grid portal in Maine and the purchase of an energy efficient supercomputer. The purpose of the grid-portal is to make research from the University of Maine Institute of Climate Modeling available to top research scientists down to school age children.

Results of widely used ice sheet models, tools for climate change research, prototype versions of object based caching system, real-time animations and video are just a few of the applications that will be available. In addition, the grid portal will provide the larger community with the computing power, storage capacity, and rendering engine to execute very high-resolution models and receive animations and other visual information in real time.

In a demonstration of energy efficiency, the University of Maine, Department of Computer Science, unveiled the first cyclist-powered "green" supercomputer. Powered by 10 cyclists, the eco-friendly SiCortex SC648 supercomputer successfully ran a program demonstrating glacial melting for 20 minutes.

"The fact that a computer can be powered by a team of cyclists underscores how efficient computers have become," said University of Maine professor George Markowsky.

Computer scientists are continually searching for new ways to reduce the amount of energy it takes to operate computer systems. The SiCortex SC648 is the first of two low power HPC systems to be developed in the state of Maine. It combines desktop accessibility with low cooling requirements of a standard PC, but has the speed and power for high-productivity computing. The SC648 can develop, distribute, run multiple applications and uses 1000 watts of power. In addition to the SC648, the University of Maine has also invested in the SiCortex SC072. It provides answers to complex scientific computing challenges as quickly as conventional cluster computers, but at the fraction of the energy requirement using 300 watts of power. Both computer systems will power the University of Maine Scientific Grid Portal and provide access to computing resources, scientific applications and research animations.

"The computer industry is still in the early phase of realizing the importance of power consumption. Most computer users today don't think about energy and infrastructure costs when making a buying decision. With climate change looming, energy costs skyrocketing and the economy stumbling, power requirements are being thrust into the foreground," said James Bailey, marketing director of SiCortex.

Although Dickens is at the forefront of "green" supercomputing, his desire exceeds the current eco-friendly capabilities. "We are still in the beginning phase. It would have been nice to show multiple displays, all executing different phases, showing different processes. We have one application now and we are looking to get more because there is a lot of demand," he said.

The South Pole: A Premier Observatory

2009-01-22T22:03:00.000-08:00

Astronomers work at the South Pole to take advantage of excellent viewing conditions. Cold, dry Antarctica will allow SPT to more easily detect the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation, the afterglow of the big bang, with minimal interference from water vapor. On the electromagnetic spectrum, the CMB falls somewhere between heat radiation and radio waves.

The CMB is largely uniform, but it contains tiny ripples of varying density and temperature. These ripples reflect the seeds that, through gravitational attraction, grew into the galaxies and galaxy clusters visible to astronomers today. The SPT's first key science project will be to study small variations in the CMB to determine if dark energy began to affect the formation of galaxy clusters by fighting against gravity over the past few billion years.

Galaxy clusters are groups of galaxies, the largest celestial bodies that gravity can hold together. "Our galaxy, the Milky Way, is in one of these clusters," Meyer said. "And these clusters of galaxies actually change with time."

The CMB allows astronomers to take snapshots of the infant universe, when it was only 400,000 years old. No stars or galaxies had yet formed. If dark energy changed the way the universe expanded, it would have left its "fingerprints" in the way it forced galaxies apart over the deep history of time. Different causes would produce a different pattern in the formation of galaxy clusters.

According to one idea, dark energy could be Albert Einstein's cosmological constant: a steady force of nature operating at all times and in all places. Einstein introduced the cosmological constant into his theory of general relativity to accommodate a stationary universe, the dominant idea of the day. If Einstein's idea is correct, scientists will find that dark energy was much less influential in the universe 5 billion years ago than it is today.

"Clusters weren't around in the early universe. They took a long time to evolve," Carlstrom said.

Another version of the dark energy theory, called quintessence, suggests a force that varies in time and space. Some scientists even suggest there is no dark energy at all, and that gravity merely breaks down on vast intergalactic scales.

To pinpoint when dark energy became important, SPT will use a phenomenon called the Sunyaev-Zeldovich effect, which distorts the CMB as it passes through the hot gas of intervening galaxy clusters. As the microwaves interact with gas in the clusters, some of the microwaves get kicked into a higher frequency. SPT will measure the slight temperature difference associated with the frequency change and produce an image of the gas in the cluster.

SPT can scan large regions of the sky quickly. Scientists expect it to detect thousands, or even tens of thousands, of galaxy clusters within a few years. "To get a meaningful constraint on dark energy through measuring galaxy clusters, you need something like this South Pole Telescope," Carlstrom said. "The cluster SZ [Sunyaev-Zeldovich] signals cover small patches in the sky relative to the intrinsic variations in the cosmic microwave background. To get the necessary resolution, you need a big telescope. Now we have one."

Senior members of the SPT team include William Holzapfel, Adrian Lee and Helmuth Spieler from the University of California at Berkeley and the Lawrence Berkeley National Laborator; Joe Mohr, from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; John Ruhl from Case Western Reserve University; Antony Stark, from the Harvard-Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory; Matt Dobbs from McGill University; and Erik Leitch of NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory.

SLIPPERY ELM - Ulmus rubra, Muhl

2009-01-17T02:40:00.000-08:00

EXCEPT FOR SCATTERED counties in the Ozarks, slippery elm is found in almost every county in the state. Like American elm, slippery elm is a water-loving tree and grows best on moist, rich soils on lowers slopes, stream banks, river terraces and bottomlands.

The leaf is alternate, simple, with a coarsely double saw-toothed edge. It ranges from five to seven inches long and two to three inches wide. It is egg-shaped with the broadest part above the middle and the base slightly uneven. The tip is drawn out to a long, narrow point. The upper surface of the leaf is dark green and very rough while the under-surface is lighter and hairy. This rough leaf distinguishes it from the American elm which has a smooth leaf.

The fruit occurs in clusters and each seed and stem is 3/4 inch long. A single seed is surrounded by a thin, papery wing, smooth around the edge. It is common to see small drifts of elm seeds along sidewalks in metropolitan areas after a heavy rain.

Twigs are slender to moderately stout. They are gray and very rough to the touch. The buds are egg-shaped, pointed and covered with dark chestnut-brown hairs. The bark on older trees is reddish-brown. It is furrowed with platy or scaly ridges and the inner bark contains a sticky sap once used as a medicine by Indians and pioneers.

Like American elm, the seeds, buds, and leaves of slippery elm furnish food for the gray and fox squirrel and deer.The wood of slippery elm is heavy, tough, and strong. Of all the elms, it has the best and most durable lumber. It is used in the manufacture of furniture and for many other uses. Because of intertwined fibers, it is hard to split with an axe. Unprotected piles of lumber will twist and warp.

Growing along with slippery elm may be American elm, black cherry, white ash, blue ash, black walnut, bitternut hickory, bur oak, basswood, silver maple, and white oak. This elm is also susceptible to Dutch elm disease and many leaf-chewing insects.

Fresh or Frozen, Defender Is a Good Potato

2009-01-08T02:32:00.000-08:00

Long, white-skinned potatoes in the produce section of your supermarket might be "Defender"—the only commercially grown potato in the United States today with tubers and leaves that fend off late blight disease. Worldwide, late blight is generally regarded as one of the worst diseases of potatoes.

Besides starring as a fresh-market potato, Defender also can be processed into frozen products. ARS scientists in the Small Grains and Potato Research Unit , Aberdeen, Idaho, and the Vegetable and Forage Crop Research Unit, Prosser, Wash., worked with university colleagues to in Idaho, Oregon and Washington develop this superior spud. They put it through more than a decade of rigorous outdoor tests before making it available to growers, processors, potato-seed companies and others last year.

The plant's natural resistance to late blight allows growers to use either no fungicides—or much smaller amounts—to control the disease. This feature makes the potato ideal for conventional and organic farms alike.

Kimberlites

2008-12-31T03:24:00.000-08:00

Active exploration for diamondiferous kimberlite pipes is ongoing in northeastern Namibia, where kimberlite indicator minerals (e.g. ilmenite, garnet, chrom-diopside) as well as micro-diamonds have been recovered.

Companies exploring for diamondiferous kimberlites include Motapa Diamonds Incorporation, Mount Burgess Mining N.L and DeBeers. Past exploration of kimberlite pipes within the Gibeon Kimberlite Province was unable to delineate diamondiferous kimberlites due to their off-craton setting. To date, no economic diamondiferous kimberlite pipes have been discovered, but great potential exists on both the Congo and Kalahari cratons.

A new national park on Aboriginal land at Cape York

2008-12-23T02:31:00.000-08:00

Queensland's second national park (Cape York Peninsula Aboriginal land) was dedicated on 8 August 2008. The new KULLA (McIlwraith Range) National Park (Cape York Peninsula Aboriginal land) is an area of outstanding beauty and biological richness with spectacular escarpments, gorges, waterfalls and rainforests that has been the home of Aboriginal people for thousands of years. It’s jointly managed by the Kulla Land Trust and the Queensland Government.

Money Market Funds

2008-12-18T04:22:00.000-08:00

Money market funds have relatively low risks, compared to other mutual funds (and most other investments). By law, they can invest in only certain high-quality, short-term investments issued by the U.S. government, U.S. corporations, and state and local governments. Money market funds try to keep their net asset value (NAV) — which represents the value of one share in a fund — at a stable $1.00 per share. But the NAV may fall below $1.00 if the fund's investments perform poorly.

Investor losses have been rare, but they are possible.Money market funds pay dividends that generally reflect short-term interest rates, and historically the returns for money market funds have been lower than for either bond or stock funds. That's why "inflation risk" — the risk that inflation will outpace and erode investment returns over time — can be a potential concern for investors in money market funds.

UK losing out to the new members of the EU in attracting FDI

2008-12-08T23:27:00.000-08:00

With the expansion of the EU with ten new members in 2004, and more set to join in 2007, foreign investors have a much broader selection of lower-wage markets and skill sets from which to choose. The UK has positioned itself as a mature market, producing higher-value goods and services and with a highlyskilled workforce, and continues to be the leading investment location in Europe, according to the UNCTAD World Investment Report 2006.

In line with its positioning as a high-value market, the UK attracts more European headquarters and R&D projects than any other European country1. The UK's focus is to attract hi-tech companies, and exploit the wider aspects of innovation in a variety of knowledgedriven industries.

French and Italian painting of the 17th century

2008-12-05T20:33:00.000-08:00

In Italy, the Counter-reformation helped drive a style of painting that was emotional and direct. Artists again emphasized careful observation of the natural world and looked to the examples of past masters. Their classical approach would leave its mark all over Europe for more than 100 years and, in France, would be institutionalized in the French Academy, founded in 1648. Fueled by the wealth of the Vatican and the spate of construction of new buildings, seventeenth-century Rome offered great opportunities for artists. Domenico Fetti saw the Veil of Veronica when it was exhibited at Saint Peter's in Rome and made it the subject of a moving portrayal of Christ in his suffering.

The French state from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries witnessed a form of government based on the absolute monarchy, which reached its apogee under the reign of the Sun King, Louis XIV, from 1643 until 1715. Louis' desire to glorify his dignity and the magnificence of France found expression in a distinctly French style that rivaled the more exuberant Italian form of the baroque. The history and landscape paintings of Nicolas Poussin and Claude Lorrain are characterized by symmetry and clarity of form; the artist's organization of his compositions was to demonstrate the power of reason that pervaded seventeenth-century French culture.

US in $800-bn Move To Spur Consumer Loans

2008-11-25T21:04:00.000-08:00

In its continued fight against the economic meltdown, the US Government on Tuesday announced yet another package of a whopping $800 billion (about Rs 40 lakh crore) with a view to augmenting consumer loans by the near-bankrupt banking and mortgage institutions.This mega package is in addition to the $700-billion rescue plan, which was cleared after several rounds of intense debate in the US Congress.

The US Federal Reserve said it would buy mortgage-backed securities (MBS) worth $600 billion, which would in turn encourage lending. Further, the apex bank would launch a new facility aimed at thawing the credit market for consumers, especially in supporting issuance of auto and student loans.

In a statement on Tuesday, the US Fed announced that it would launch a programme to purchase direct obligations of housing-related Government-Sponsored Enterprises (GSEs) and mortgage-backed securities of Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac and Ginnie Mae.

The apex bank pointed out that the action was being taken to reduce cost and increase availability of credit for purchase of houses. This would, in turn, help in supporting housing markets and foster better financial market conditions.
"Purchases of up to $100 billion in GSE's direct obligations under the programme will be conducted with the Federal Reserve's primary dealers through a series of competitive auctions and will begin next week.

"Purchases of up to $500 billion in MBS will be conducted by asset managers selected via a competitive process with a goal of beginning these purchases before year-end," the US Fed noted.

Further, in a separate statement, the apex bank said it would create Term Asset-Backed Securities Loan Facility (TALF) to lend up to $200 billion, to unfreeze the credit needs of consumers and small businesses.

Grotto Falls

2008-11-24T03:20:00.000-08:00

Trillium Gap Trail meanders through an old-growth hemlock forest and actually runs behind the 25 foot high waterfall. The cool, moist environment near the falls is ideal for salamanders and summer hikers. The hike is 3 miles roundtrip and considered moderate in difficulty.

Access trail: Trillium GapTrailhead: From the parkway in Gatlinburg, turn at traffic light #8 and follow Historic Nature Trail into Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Take Roaring Fork Motor Nature Trail (no RVs or trailers; closed in winter ) to stop #5 where there is a large parking area.

Lung Cancer

2008-11-18T02:43:00.000-08:00

Also called: Bronchogenic carcinoma
Lung cancer is one of the most common cancers in the world. It is a leading cause of cancer death in men and women in the United States. Cigarette smoking causes most lung cancers. The more cigarettes you smoke per day and the earlier you started smoking, the greater your risk of lung cancer. High levels of pollution, radiation and asbestos exposure may also increase risk.

Common symptoms of lung cancer include
* A cough that doesn't go away and gets worse over time

* Constant chest pain

* Coughing up blood

* Shortness of breath, wheezing, or hoarseness

* Repeated problems with pneumonia or bronchitis

* Swelling of the neck and face

* Loss of appetite or weight loss

* Fatigue

There are many types of lung cancer. Each type of lung cancer grows and spreads in different ways and is treated differently. Treatment also depends on the stage, or how advanced it is. Treatment may include chemotherapy, radiation and surgery.

Multiple fruit

2008-11-11T00:45:00.000-08:00

A multiple fruit is one formed from a cluster of flowers (called an inflorescence). Each flower produces a fruit, but these mature into a single mass. Examples are the pineapple, edible fig, mulberry, osage-orange, and breadfruit.In some plants, such as this noni, flowers are produced regularly along the stem and it is possible to see together examples of flowering, fruit development, and fruit ripening.

In the stages of flowering and fruit development in the noni or Indian mulberry (Morinda citrifolia) can be observed on a single branch. First an inflorescence of white flowers called a head is produced. After fertilization, each flower develops into a drupe, and as the drupes expand, they become connate (merge) into a multiple fleshy fruit called a syncarpet.

There are also many dry multiple fruits, e.g.
* Tuliptree, multiple of samaras.

* Sweet gum, multiple of capsules.

* Sycamore and teasel, multiple of achenes.

* Magnolia, multiple of follicles.

2008-11-05T21:45:00.000-08:00

World leaders have hailed the election of Senator Barack Obama as the first black president of the United States.

UK Prime Minister Gordon Brown called Tuesday's poll historic and said he and Mr Obama "share many values".

Chinese President Hu Jintao said he looked forward to strengthening dialogue. France's Nicolas Sarkozy said the poll had raised "enormous hope".

Outgoing US President George W Bush said Mr Obama could count on "complete co-operation" during the transition.

The president-elect will take over the presidency in January.

Democratic officials quoted by the Associated Press news agency say Illinois Congressman Rahm Emanuel has been offered the job of Mr Obama's White House chief-of-staff.

Blessing

UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon said he was looking forwards "to an era of renewed partnership and a new multilateralism".

In Kenya - the birthplace of Mr Obama's father - President Mwai Kibaki declared a national holiday on Thursday.

Pope Benedict XVI asked for "God's blessings on the American people".

The BBC's Justin Webb in Washington says Americans have made two fundamental statements about themselves - that they are profoundly unhappy with the status quo, and that they are slamming the door on the country's racial past.

At the White House, Mr Bush told reporters: "History was made yesterday."

He congratulated the president-elect on an "impressive victory" and said it represented strides "toward a more perfect union".

20th Century Drought

2008-11-03T22:01:00.000-08:00

The Dust Bowl Drought

The Dust Bowl drought was a natural disaster that severely affected much of the United States during the 1930s. The drought came in three waves, 1934, 1936, and 1939-40, but some regions of the High Plains experienced drought conditions for as many as eight years. The "dust bowl" effect was caused by sustained drought conditions compounded by years of landPhotos from Library of Congress and U.S. National Archives management practices that left topsoil susceptible to the forces of the wind. The soil, depleted of moisture, was lifted by the wind into great clouds of dust and sand which were so thick they concealed the sun for several days at a time. They were referred to as" black blizzards".

The agricultural and economic damage devastated residents of the Great Plains. The Dust Bowl drought worsened the already severe economic crises that many Great Plains farmers faced. In the early 1930s, many farmers were trying to recover from economic losses suffered during the Great Depression. To compensate for these losses, they began to increase their crop yields. High production drove prices down, forcing farmers to keep increasing their production to pay for both their equipment and their land. When the drought hit, farmers could no longer produce enough crops to pay off loans or even pay for essential needs. Even with Federal emergency aid, many Great Plains farmers could not withstand the economic crisis of the drought. Many farmers were forced off of their land, with one in ten farms changing possession at the peak of the farm transfers.PDSI Animation, 1930s and 1950s (6 year time frame)

In the aftermath of the Dust Bowl, it was clear that many factors contributed to the severe impact of this drought. A better understanding of the interactions between the natural elements (climate, plants, and soil) and human-related elements (agricultural practices, economics, and social conditions)of the Great Plains was needed. Lessons were learned, and because of this drought, farmers adopted new cultivation methods to help control soil erosion in dry land ecosystems. Subsequent droughts in this region have had less impact due to these cultivation practices.

Indian Health & Family Welfare

2008-10-31T21:16:00.000-07:00

India is rapidly gaining ground in the international scenario as a popular destination for foreign travelers, international students, and even for some others who opt to migrate to this mystical land for health and medical tourism. The country, which had been reeling under the onslaught of British colonial rule, managed to fight all odds and has successfully created a niche for itself. It has metamorphosed into one of the most sought after destinations for travel, much due to the presence of several renowned world heritage sites, and an inherent spiritualistic force, which pulls enthusiastic travelers towards it.

McCain Uses Biden's 'Crisis' Prediction To Question Obama

2008-10-22T00:23:00.000-07:00

Republican running mates John McCain and Sarah Palin raised new questions about Barack Obama's readiness to lead Tuesday, taking advantage of Joe Biden's claims that Obama would face a "generated crisis."Biden's comments seemed to hand the McCain campaign yet another last-minute line of attack as the Arizona senator tries to close the gap between him and his Democratic rival in the final two weeks of the presidential campaign."We don't want a president who invites testing from the world at a time when our economy is in crisis and Americans are already fighting in two wars," McCain said Tuesday in Harrisburg, Pa. "Thanks for the warning, Joe," Palin said to cheers from about 2,500 supporters at the Reno-Sparks Convention Center in Nevada. Biden made the comments over the weekend to two fundraising audiences in Seattle, saying he expected world figures to test Obama early if he wins the election in two weeks.

"Mark my words. It will not be six months before the world tests Barack Obama like they did John Kennedy. The world is looking," Biden said. "Watch, we're gonna have an international crisis, a generated crisis, to test the mettle of this guy."The McCain campaign jumped on the remarks, with McCain and Palin bringing them up on the stump Monday evening and Tuesday. McCain on Tuesday, in response to Biden's reference to President Kennedy, recalled being ready to launch a bombing run during the October 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis."I was on board the USS Enterprise," McCain, a former naval aviator, said. "I sat in the cockpit, on the flight deck of the USS Enterprise, off of Cuba. I had a target. My friends, you know how close we came to a nuclear war." As the crowd of several thousand began to swell with cheers and applause, he added: "America will not have a president who needs to be tested. I've been tested, my friends."

Democratic aides said that Biden was merely reciting history and assuring supporters that Obama is the man for the job. But Palin on Tuesday linked Biden's comments to Obama's foreign policy positions. She said the "crisis" scenarios Biden referenced could be triggered by Obama's willingness to sit down with "the world's worst dictators," his willingness to send U.S. military into Pakistan without the approval of their government, or other positions. "But I guess the looming crisis that most worries the Obama campaign right now is Joe Biden's next speaking engagement. Let's call that crisis scenario number five," she said. The McCain campaign is trying to build steam off Biden's remark as it incorporates several other lines of attack into its day-to-day message. McCain already has gotten significant political mileage out of the man known as Joe the Plumber, who was filmed asking Obama about his tax policies two weekends ago and became the rhetorical centerpiece of the final presidential debate last week. Republicans seized on Obama's response that he would "spread the wealth around" if elected.

The McCain campaign has gone so far as to liken Obama's philosophy to "socialism." Pennsylvania Democratic Rep. John Murtha also seemed to do Republicans a favor after he called his own constituents "racist" in a newspaper interview. He later apologized and then clarified, saying some of his constituents are just "rednecks." As McCain struggles against the odds to lock down support in Obama-leaning Pennsylvania, he cited Murtha's remarks Tuesday."You may have noticed that Senator Obama's supporters have been saying some pretty nasty things about western Pennsylvania lately," he said. McCain fumbled his next line: "And you know I couldn't agree with them more." But he continued: "I could not disagree with those critics more. This is a great part of America. This is where people love their country and they serve it."

Wayne Rooney Scores Twice As England Win

2008-10-15T22:51:00.000-07:00

Wayne Rooney scored twice as England took a giant stride towards World Cup qualification by beating Belarus to make it maximum points from four games.

Steven Gerrard gave England the lead from 30 yards after 11 minutes, but Pavel Sitko headed a deserved leveller for Belarus before the break.Rooney turned in a cross from Emile Heskey five minutes after the break.And he lifted home a superb third from Gerrard's pass 16 minutes from time to give coach Fabio Capello another win.It gives England a perfect record of 12 points so far, with Capello's huge reputation bolstered further by two convincing away wins against dangerous opposition in Croatia and Belarus.

And for Gerrard, a spectacular strike will increase his fragile self-confidence in an England shirt and silence any lingering doubts about his worth at international level.Rooney's double also demonstrated his growing maturity as he provided a deadly spearhead to the attack, ably assisted by the powerful Heskey, who was winning his 50th England cap.The Manchester United striker has now scored five goals in England's last three qualifiers as he plays a leading role in the new Capello era.Gerrard had pleaded with coach Capello to keep faith with him after a low-key display in the win against Kazakhstan - and he repaid his confidence with a stunning opener. He picked up the ball from Rooney before placing a perfect slide-rule finish into the bottom corner beyond Belarus keeper Yury Zhevnov from fully 30 yards.Instead of settling England, the goal was the signal for a period of Belarus dominance, with keeper David James having to save from Dmitry Molosh and Vitaly Kutuzov.

Heskey was working tirelessly up front to keep the Belarus defence occupied, and his fine cross set up Rooney for a far post header, but he could not find the target.Belarus were in the ascendancy, however, and it was no surprise when they drew level after 28 minutes at the end of a glorious 23-pass move.Igor Stasevich was the creator, popping up an inviting cross to the far post for Sitko to arrived unmarked and head beyond the exposed James.England needed to apply more pressure to the gifted Belarus attacking players after the break, and Rooney almost provided the perfect start with a great run that was only marred by a tame finish.He made no mistake as England regained the lead after 50 minutes, but credit must go to Heskey again with a powerful run and perfect cross for Rooney to slide home from close range.

As Belarus attempted to force their way back into contention, Capello made two changes to his attacking personnel, sending on Shaun Wright-Phillips for Theo Walcott and Peter Crouch for the excellent Heskey, who was struggling with an injury.It did not stop Rooney taking the game by the scruff of the neck and he scored his second, and England's third, with a goal of the highest class 16 minutes from time.Gerrard slid a superb instant pass into his path, and Rooney dummied a defender before lifting a composed finish over Zhevnov.The Liverpool captain should have added a fourth five minutes from time when he rounded Zhevnov, but carelessly shot again the outside of the post with the goal at his mercy.It was not a costly miss as England entered new territory by winning their opening four World Cup qualifiers for the first time.

Software engineering in China

2008-10-03T01:38:00.000-07:00

Software is ubiquitous. It runs our businesses and controls our phones, entertainment devices, appliances, automobiles, and countless other things that humans manufacture. Even sneakers! Adidas recently announced that its latest running shoe has an embedded computer chip to adjust the shoe's performance for each individual step during a run. Although the United States now has the greatest number of companies that depend on automation, the rest of the industrial world isn't far behind. Just observe how many people in cities around the globe are walking down the street -- or worse, driving a car -- with cell phones glued to their ears.

Years ago, the term software crisis entered our everyday vocabulary because it was clear that we needed more software than we could produce. How can we keep up with the demand without sacrificing software quality?

Many companies have turned to international outsourcing, where India and Eastern Europe lead the market for software services. Both offer an educated workforce available at low cost for high-quality work. But today, another important contender is entering that marketplace: The People's Republic of China. For years, the Chinese educational system has been gearing up to meet the demand for software engineers who can compete in the global marketplace. Below, we will look at China's emergence first from the perspective of Professor Haiqing Liu of Wuhan University, a visiting scholar at Worcester Polytechnic Institute during the 2004-2005 academic year. Then, I will report what I learned from my own informal, Web-based research on the state of the Chinese software industry.

Japanese Snapping Up Wall Street Banks

2008-09-24T03:35:00.000-07:00

Amid the U.S. financial turmoil, Japanese financial firms have been aggressive in buying assets or taking over business networks of U.S. financial institutions. Mitsubishi UFJ (MUFJ) Financial Group, Japan's second largest financial institution in terms of assets, abruptly announced it would acquire up to 20 percent in Morgan Stanley, the world's second largest investment bank.

The announcement came only a few hours after Goldman Sachs and Morgan Stanley, the last two remaining out of the five largest American investment banks, said they would turn into bank holding companies.

The takeover price will be between 400 billion yen (about W4,280 billion) and 900 billion yen (about W9,640 billion), Japanese media outlets said. MUFJ is a supersize financial group with assets of 194 trillion yen, the result of a merger of the Mitsubishi Tokyo Financial Group, Japan's second largest financial group, and UFJ Holdings, Japan's fourth largest financial firm, in 2005.

Nomura Holdings, Japan's largest securities firm, beat Barclays Group of Britain in the takeover bid for Lehman Brothers, the U.S.’ fourth largest investment bank, which has filed for bankruptcy.

This was not the first time Japanese firms have been aggressive in their bid to buy American firms. During the "bubble economy" in the late 1980s, Japanese conglomerates or large investors were busy property shopping in the U.S. and Europe. Mitsubishi Estate's purchase of the Rockefeller Center building in New York in 1989 was a symbolic incident. In a poll in the U.S. at the time, Americans said Japanese economic power was more fearsome than Soviet military power. But Japanese property shopping spree in the U.S. ended up in failure when the economic bubble burst.

Japan experienced a "lost decade" while the American economy boomed in the 1990s. But in 2007, Japanese economic growth (2.1 percent) overtook that of the U.S. (2 percent) for the first time in 15 years. Based on their restored economic power, the Japanese are back.

Cell biology

2008-09-17T00:27:00.000-07:00

Cell biology (also called cellular biology or formerly cytology, from the Greek kytos, "container") is an academic discipline that studies cells – their physiological properties, their structure, the organelles they contain, interactions with their environment, their life cycle, division and death. This is done both on a microscopic and molecular level. Cell biology research extends to both the great diversity of single-celled organisms like bacteria and the many specialized cells in multicellular organisms like humans.

Knowing the composition of cells and how cells work is fundamental to all of the biological sciences. Appreciating the similarities and also differences between cell types is particularly important to the fields of cell and molecular biology. These fundamental similarities and differences provide a unifying theme, allowing the principles learned from studying one cell type to be extrapolated and generalized to other cell types. Research in cell biology is closely related to genetics, biochemistry, molecular biology and developmental biology.

Biotechnology

2008-09-10T21:44:00.001-07:00

Biotechnology is technology based on biology, especially when used in agriculture, food science, and medicine. The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity defines biotechnology as:

Any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use.

Biotechnology is often used to refer to genetic engineering technology of the 21st century, however the term encompasses a wider range and history of procedures for modifying biological organisms according to the needs of humanity, going back to the initial modifications of native plants into improved food crops through artificial selection and hybridization. Bioengineering is the science upon which all biotechnological applications are based. With the development of new approaches and modern techniques, traditional biotechnology industries are also acquiring new horizons enabling them to improve the quality of their products and increase the productivity of their systems.

Microbiology

2008-08-26T23:00:00.000-07:00

Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, which are unicellular or cell-cluster microscopic organisms. This includes eukaryotes such as fungi and protists, and prokaryotes, which are bacteria and archaea. Viruses, though not strictly classed as living organisms, are also studied. In short; microbiology refers to the study of life and organisms that are too small to be seen with the naked eye.

Microbiology is a broad term which includes virology, mycology, parasitology and other branches. A microbiologist is a specialist in microbiology.

Microbiology is researched actively, and the field is advancing continually. We have probably only studied about one percent of all of the microbe species on Earth. Although microbes were first observed over three hundred years ago, the field of microbiology can be said to be in its infancy relative to older biological disciplines such as zoology and botany.

.NET Framework

2008-08-22T22:43:00.000-07:00

The .NET Framework provides a run-time that is used to interpret intermediate code, code that is compiled from a development environment such as Microsoft’s Visual Studio when the language is C# or Visual Basic.NET. The code requires the run-time in order to execute. The code is referred to as "intermediate" because the result of the compilation is not a result that could be run at the machine level, or in other words to run without the aid of the run-time. The run-time is a service process that provides the framework for the execution of the intermediate code. The run-time acts as an interpreter of the intermediate code and then provides the structure for it to run on the operating system. Lower level capabilities it provides includes memory management, process management, and I/O management. In many cases the run-time is simply providing an abstraction level to the Windows API opening up nearly all of its capabilities to the programmer

The purpose of a run-time is to support the use rapid application development languages, such as C# and Visual Basic.NET. Highly capable run-times, such as the .NET Framework offer significant capabilities and access to the operating system and I/O. This allows a developer to create a powerful application very quickly.

Run-times are not necessarily striving for cross platform compatibility, while run-times such as Sun’s Java might.

Scripting (meta) language interpreters act similar to a run-time, although the code for many scripting languages is not pre-compiled as they are in .NET languages. Pre-compiling speeds up the act of loading the application into memory and also ensures a more compact executable file.

Google Earth Plus

2008-08-12T22:14:00.000-07:00

Google Earth can be upgraded to a Plus edition for a $20 annual subscription fee. Google Earth Plus is an individual-oriented paid subscription upgrade to Google Earth and adds the following features:

* GPS integration: read tracks and waypoints from a GPS device. A variety of third party applications have been created which provide this functionality using the basic version of Google Earth by generating KML or KMZ files based on user-specified or user-recorded waypoints. However, Google Earth Plus provides direct support for the Magellan and Garmin product lines, which together hold a large share of the GPS market. The Linux version of the Google Earth Plus application does not include any GPS functionality.
* Higher resolution printing.
* Customer support via email.
* Data importer: read address points from CSV files; limited to 100 points/addresses. A feature allowing path and polygon annotations, which can be exported to KML, was formerly only available to Plus users, but was made free in version 4.0.2416.

Network telescope

2008-08-06T21:35:00.000-07:00

A network telescope (also known as a darknet, internet motion sensor or black hole) is an internet system that allows one to observe different large-scale events taking place on the Internet. The basic idea is to observe traffic targeting the dark (unused) address-space of the network. Since all traffic to these addresses is suspicious, one can gain information about possible network attacks (random scanning worms, and DDoS backscatter) as well as other misconfigurations by observing it.

The resolution of the Internet telescope is dependent on the number of dark addresses it monitors. For example, a large Internet telescope that monitors traffic to 16,777,216 addresses (a /8 Internet telescope in IPv4), has a higher probability of observing a relatively small event than a smaller telescope that monitors 65,536 addresses (a /16 Internet telescope).

A variant of a network telescope is a sparse darknet, or greynet, consisting of a region of IP address space that is sparsely populated with 'darknet' addresses interspersed with active (or 'lit') IP addresses.

Wide Area Augmentation System

2008-07-30T23:02:00.000-07:00

The Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) is an air navigation aid developed by the Federal Aviation Administration to augment the Global Positioning System (GPS), with the goal of improving its accuracy, integrity, and availability. Essentially, WAAS is intended to enable aircraft to rely on GPS for all phases of flight, including precision approaches to any airport within its coverage area.

WAAS uses a network of ground-based reference stations (Benchmark DGPSRs transmitting differential corrections (DCs, located within spaces protected from the public inside airportsin North America and Hawaii, to measure small variations in the GPS satellites' signals in the western hemisphere. Measurements from the reference stations are routed to master stations, which queue the received DCs and send the correction messages to geostationary WAAS satellites in a timely manner (at least every 5 seconds or better). Those satellites broadcast the correction messages back to Earth, where WAAS-enabled GPS receiver uses the corrections while computing its position to improve accuracy. The longer any given DC has been delayed, the less benefit it will produce.

The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) calls this type of system a Satellite Based Augmentation System (SBAS). Europe and Asia are developing their own SBASs, the Indian Gagan, the European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS) and the Japanese Multi-functional Satellite Augmentation System (MSAS), respectively. Commercial systems include StarFire and OmniSTAR.

Database transaction

2008-07-23T22:14:00.000-07:00

A database transaction is a unit of work performed against a database management system or similar system that is treated in a coherent and reliable way independent of other transactions. A database transaction, by definition, must be atomic, consistent, isolated and durable. These properties of database transactions are often referred to by the acronym ACID.

Transactions provide an "all-or-nothing" proposition stating that work units performed in a database must be completed in their entirety or take no effect whatsoever. Further, transactions must be isolated from other transactions, results must conform to existing constraints in the database and transactions that complete successfully must be committed to durable storage.

Transaction processing system

2008-07-16T05:31:00.000-07:00

A 'Transaction Processing SystemTo be considered a transaction processing system the computer must pass the ACID test.

From a technical perspective, a Transaction Processing System (or Transaction Processing Monitor) monitors transaction programs, a special kind of programs. The essence of a transaction program is that it manages data that must be left in a consistent state. E.g. if an electronic payment is made, the amount must be either both withdrawn from one account and added to the other, or none at all. In case of a failure preventing transaction completion, the partially executed transaction must be 'rolled back' by the TPS. While this type of integrity must be provided also for batch transaction processing, it is particularly important for online processing: if e.g. an airline seat reservation system is accessed by multiple operators, after an empty seat inquiry, the seat reservation data must be locked until the reservation is made, otherwise another user may get the impression a seat is still free while it is actually being booked at the time. Without proper transaction monitoring, double bookings may occur. Other transaction monitor functions include deadlock detection and resolution (deadlocks may be inevitable in certain cases of cross-dependence on data), and transaction logging (in 'journals') for 'forward recovery' in case of massive failures.

Transaction Processing is not limited to application programs. The 'journaled file system' provided with IBMs AIX Unix operating system employs similar techniques to maintain file system integrity, including a journal.

Hierarchical model

2008-07-10T00:17:00.000-07:00

In a hierarchical data model, data is organized into a tree-like structure. The structure allows repeating information using parent/child relationships: each parent can have many children but each child only has one parent. All attributes of a specific record are listed under an entity type. In a database, an entity type is the equivalent of a table; each individual record is represented as a row and an attribute as a column. Entity types are related to each other using 1: N mapping, also known as one-to-many relationships. The most recognized example of hierarchical model database is an IMS designed by IBM.

Encryption of mail sessions

2008-07-02T23:10:00.000-07:00

All relevant email protocols have an option to encrypt the whole session. Remarkably, those options prevent a user's name and password from being sniffed, therefore they are recommended for nomadic users and whenever the internet access provider is not trusted. On sending mail, users can only control encryption at the hop from a client to its configured outgoing mail server. At any further hop, messages may be transmitted with or without encryption, depending solely on the general configuration of the transmitting server and the capabilities of the receiving one.

Encrypted mail sessions deliver messages in their original format, i.e. plain text or encrypted body, on a user's local mailbox and on the destination server's. The latter server is operated by an email hosting service provider, possibly a different entity than the internet access provider currently at hand.

AntiVirus Gold

2008-06-24T22:54:00.001-07:00

AntiVirus Gold is a piece of rogue software that poses as a legitimate antivirus program. It is typified by a small icon in the system tray, with a link directing to download the offending software. It could also possibly do a homepage hijack. There have also been many variants of this malware, such as Antivirus Golden, Antispyware Gold and the like. They seem to be related to both WinAntiVirus and Winfixer. Typically, said infections are installed by the Vundo, SysProtect or SmitFraud trojans.

Gathering of addresses

2008-06-18T22:03:00.001-07:00

In order to send spam, spammers need to obtain the e-mail addresses of the intended recipients. To this end, both spammers themselves and list merchants gather huge lists of potential e-mail addresses. Since spam is, by definition, unsolicited, this address harvesting is done without the consent (and sometimes against the expressed will) of the address owners. As a consequence, spammers' address lists are inaccurate. A single spam run may target tens of millions of possible addresses — many of which are invalid, malformed, or undeliverable.

Sometimes, if the sent spam is "bounced" or sent back to the sender by various programs that eliminate spam, or if the recipient clicks on an unsubscribe link, that may cause that email address to be marked as "valid", which is interpreted by the spammer as "send me more".

Adaptive system

2008-06-11T23:20:00.001-07:00

An adaptive system is a system that is able to adapt its behavior according to changes in its environment or in parts of the system itself. A human being, for instance, is certainly an adaptive system; so are organizations and families. Some man-made systems can be made adaptive as well; for instance, control systems utilize feedback loops in order to sense conditions in their environment and adapt accordingly. Robots incorporate many of these control systems. Neural Networks are a common type of algorithmic implementation of adaptive systems.

Diffusion of innovations theory can help to explain the uptake of new ideas, practices and products by individuals and social groups -- human adaptive systems.

Systems engineering

2008-06-03T23:32:00.000-07:00

Systems engineering is an interdisciplinary field of engineering, that focuses on the development and organization of complex artificial systems. Systems engineering is defined by INCOSE as "a branch of engineering whose responsibility is creating and executing an interdisciplinary process to ensure that customer and stakeholder's needs are satisfied in a high quality, trustworthy, cost efficient and schedule compliant manner throughout a system's entire life cycle, from development to operation to disposal. This process is usually comprised of the following seven tasks: State the problem, Investigate alternatives, Model the system, Integrate, Launch the system, Assess performance, and Re-evaluate. The systems engineering process is not sequential: the tasks are performed in a parallel and iterative manner."

Systems intelligence

2008-05-28T22:23:00.000-07:00

Systems intelligence is human action that connects sensitivity about a systemic environment with systems thinking, thus spurring a persons problem solving capabilities and invoking performance and productivity in everyday situations. Systems intelligence, abbreviated SI, is intelligent behavior in complex systems, that are often human in nature. Key concepts a person uses when acting systems intelligently are perception of systemic occurrencies, feedback from the system's structure and interaction with the system's agents and subsystems.

Types of systems psychology

2008-05-20T21:14:00.000-07:00

In the scientific literature different kind of systems psychology have been mentioned in the scientific literature:

Applied systems psychology
De Greene in 1970 described applied systems psychology as being connected with engineering psychology and human factor.

Cognitive systems theory
Cognitive systems psychology is a part of cognitive psychology and like existential psychology, attempts to dissolve the barrier between conscious and the unconscious mind.

Contract-systems psychology
Contract-systems psychology is about the human systems actualization through praticipative organizations.

Family systems psychology
Family systems psychology is a more general name for the subfield of family thearpists and like Murray Bowen, Michael E. Kerr, and Baard. and researchers have begun to theoretize a psychology of the family as a system.

Organismic-systems psychology
Through the application of organismic-systems biology to human behavior Ludwig von Bertalanffy conceived and developed the organismic-systems psychology, as the theoretical prospect needed for the gradual comprehension of the various ways human personalities may evolve and how could they evolve properly, being supported by a holistic interpretation of human behavior.

Developmental robotics

2008-05-13T21:58:00.000-07:00

Developmental Robotics (DevRob), sometimes called epigenetic robotics, is a methodology that uses metaphors from developmental psychology to develop controllers for autonomous robots. The focus is on a single robot going through stages of autonomous mental development. Researchers in this field study artificial emotions, self-motivation, and other methods of self-organization.

DevRob is related to, but differs from, evolutionary robotics (ER). ER uses populations of robots that evolve over time, whereas DevRob is interested in how the organization of a single robot's control system develops through experience, over time.

DevRob is also related to work done in the domains of Robotics, Artificial Life.

Similar to developmental robotics, Epigenetic robotics is an interdisciplinary research area with the goal of understanding biological systems by the integration between neuroscience, developmental psychology and engineering sciences. Epigenetic systems are characterized by a prolonged developmental process through which varied and complex cognitive and perceptual structures emerge as a result of the interaction of an embodied system with a physical and social environment. An additional goal is to enable robots to autonomously develop skills for any particular environment instead of programming them for a specific environment.

Islamic Golden Age

2008-05-07T22:33:00.001-07:00

The Islamic Golden Age, also sometimes known as the Islamic Renaissance, is traditionally dated from the 8th century to the 13th century, though some have extended it to the 15^th or 16^th centuries. During this period, engineers, scholars and traders in the Islamic world contributed to the arts, agriculture, economics, industry, law, literature, navigation, philosophy, sciences, and technology, both by preserving and building upon earlier traditions and by adding inventions and innovations of their own. Howard R. Turner writes: "Muslim artists and scientists, princes and laborers together created a unique culture that has directly and indirectly influenced societies on every continent."

Cargo

2008-04-29T21:37:00.000-07:00

Cargo is a term used to denote goods or produce being transported generally for commercial gain, usually on a ship, plane, train, van or truck. Nowadays containers are used in most intermodal long-haul cargo transport.

Cargo represents a concern to U.S. national security. It was reported out of Washington, DC that in 2003 over 6 million cargo containers are entering the United States each year. After the terrorist attacks of September 11th, the security of this magnitude of cargo has become highlighted. The latest US Government response to this threat is the CSI: Container Security Initiative. CSI is a program intended to help increase security for containerized cargo shipped to the United States from around the world.

Pre-Columbian Islamic contact theories

2008-04-22T21:44:00.000-07:00

Pre-Columbian Islamic contact theories are theories which contend that medieval Muslim explorers from the Islamic world (specifically Al-Andalus, Africa or China) may have reached the Americas (and possibly made contact with the indigenous peoples of the Americas) at some point before Christopher Columbus' first voyage to the Americas in 1492. Proponents of these theories cite as evidence reports of expeditions and voyages conducted by Muslim navigators and adventurers who they allege reached the Americas from the late 9th century onwards

Prototyping

2008-04-15T21:35:00.000-07:00

Prototyping is the process of quickly putting together a working model (a prototype) in order to test various aspects of a design, illustrate ideas or features and gather early user feedback. Prototyping is often treated as an integral part of the system design process, where it is believed to reduce project risk and cost. Often one or more prototypes are made in a process of iterative and incremental development where each prototype is influenced by the performance of previous designs, in this way problems or deficiencies in design can be corrected. When the prototype is sufficiently refined and meets the functionality, robustness, manufacturability and other design goals, the product is ready for production.

Object database

2008-04-08T21:14:00.000-07:00

In an object oriented database, information is represented in the form of objects as used in object-oriented programming. When database capabilities are combined with object programming language capabilities, the result is an object database management system (ODBMS). An ODBMS makes database objects appear as programming language objects in one or more object programming languages. An ODBMS extends the programming language with transparently persistent data, concurrency control, data recovery, associative queries, and other capabilities.

Database security

2008-04-04T23:04:00.000-07:00

Database security is the system, processes, and procedures that protect a database from unintended activity. Unintended activity can be categorized as authenticated misuse, malicious attacks or inadvertent mistakes made by authorized individuals or processes. Database security is also a specialty within the broader discipline of computer security.

Traditionally databases have been protected from external connections by firewalls or routers on the network perimeter with the database environment existing on the internal network opposed to being located within a demilitarized zone. Additional network security devices that detect and alert on malicious database protocol traffic include network intrusion detection systems along with host-based intrusion detection systems.

Proxy server

2008-03-25T21:58:00.000-07:00

In computer networks, a proxy server is a server (a computer system or an application program) which services the requests of its clients by forwarding requests to other servers. A client connects to the proxy server, requesting some service, such as a file, connection, web page, or other resource, available from a different server. The proxy server provides the resource by connecting to the specified server and requesting the service on behalf of the client. A proxy server may optionally alter the client's request or the server's response, and sometimes it may serve the request without contacting the specified server. In this case, it would 'cache' the first request to the remote server, so it could save the information for later, and make everything as fast as possible.

SQL (Structured Query Language)

2008-03-18T21:33:00.000-07:00

SQL (Structured Query Language) (pronounced /ɛskjuːˈɛl/ officially, although the unofficial pronunciation /ˈsiːkwəl/ is often used (see below)) is a database computer language designed for the retrieval and management of data in relational database management systems (RDBMS), database schema creation and modification, and database object access control management.

SQL is a standard interactive and programming language for querying and modifying data and managing databases. Although SQL is both an ANSI and an ISO standard, many database products support SQL with proprietary extensions to the standard language.